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It is nearly impossible to pinpoint the exact start of Irish medical history as many sources, both primary and secondary, have been lost to time. Thankfully with the aid of historical town annals and medical manuscripts stored in either a private collection or at an institution, historians can peer into ancient times and learn more about professional medical practices in Ireland. Like many cultures, the medical traditions in Ireland were uniquely tailored to the lives and societal norms of the time period, often adapting to changes in the social hierarchy. There are books, articles and other scholarly sources that provide analysis and detailed overviews on Irish medical practices and we hope this article will encourage you to learn more. 

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Medicine & Religion: Pre-Christian Irish medical history is believed to be closely tied to the Druids and druidic practices. Due to a lack of firsthand knowledge about the Druids, their beliefs and practices, historians must separate facts from myths often ending up with inconclusive results. In Irish mythology, the Druid  “Diancecht' was known as the God of Healing and is said to have practiced hypnotism. He is said to have recognized fourteen disorders of the stomach.” (Woods, 1982 p. 35) Physicians and medical figures are woven into early Irish myths and legends, hinting at the importance of their profession during the ancient times when warfare was a common occurrence. “King Cormac who reigned in AD 227 made an order that all future monarchs of Ireland should at all times be accompanied by ten persons, a chief, a judge, a druid, a physician, a poet, a historian, a musician and three servants. This order apparently lasted until the death of Brian Boru in 1014 AD.” (Woods, 1982, p. 36) With the arrival of Christianity and the decline of the Druids, medical responsibilities shifted towards monasteries and Christian priests. 

Newly built Christian churches and monasteries contained separate wards and small hospitals that were dedicated to the care of sick or injured individuals. In these sick wards, the priests and nuns attended to their patients, often relying on prayer or herbal concoctions as remedies. Plagues were a common occurrence. There are documented cases of widespread sickness in 250 AD, 664-665 AD and the end of the sixth century when the bubonic plague reached Ireland. During these times, the Christian church grew in power as many in Ireland found comfort in Christian teachings. “The miracles of Christ, the miraculous power entrusted to his followers and the belief in the resurrection after death, gave hope to the sick and those living amidst a plague, while the Christian ethos of caring gave practical comfort.” (Woods, 1982, p. 37)  While secular physicians existed during these early times, for many years medical authority resided primarily with individuals and organizations tied to a religious background, starting with the ancient Druids before transitioning to the Christian priests once their faith reached Ireland. This union of medicine and religion lasted until the mid-twelfth century when medical authority once again shifted towards a new group of leaders and practitioners.

Hereditary Physician Families: The release of the ‘Papal Edict of 1163’ contributed to the downfall of the Christian church as a main source of medical authority. The edict prevented monks from performing surgery making it difficult for injured or sick people to rely on the church for care. As a result of this papal edict, hereditary physician lines grew in influence. Medical knowledge was usually passed from father to son even during the years when the Christian church was the primary healthcare provider. But from the mid-twelfth century to around the early seventeenth century, these hereditary lines established long-lasting connections with the Irish elites. These physicians were usually treated well and received fair compensation for their work. “The stipend usually consisted of a tract of land and a residence in the neighborhood, held free of all rent and tribute, together with certain allowances and perquisites: and the physician might practice for a fee outside his patron’s household” (Joyce, 1908, p. 267). Physicians were able to travel freely throughout the lands, even when they needed to travel into an unfriendly neighbor’s territory. These physicians typically possessed their own family medical book which contained medical treatises translated from other languages such as Greek or Latin as well as their own personal cures and recipes for common medicines. 

Despite the tremendous influence and respect these physicians earned, the Brehon Laws, Ireland’s main legal system for centuries, offered basic protections for patients if their physician intentionally or unintentionally harmed them during a procedure. Under the Brehon Laws a patient or their family could pursue litigation against a physician for any wrongdoing and in most cases the physician was forced to pay a fine in retribution. While physicians were well-respected members of the communities, these early patient protection legal codes point to the underlying danger of ancient and medieval medical practices. Even without the presence of a national medical board to issue medical licenses, early Irish physicians were held to a high standard and medical malpractice could lead to financial and legal consequences. 

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Collection & Preservation of Medical Manuscripts: Early Irish medical professionals relied on books to expand their understanding of medicine and how to treat the injured or infirmed. There was an active attempt at translating medical texts from other countries into Irish. Some of these medical manuscripts are stored in the Royal Irish Academy and they provide insight into the budding international medical community that existed during early and medieval times. For example, ‘The Book of O’Lees’ “contains a translation from Latin into Irish of a highly organised medical treatise, with 44 tables outlining details of diseases, each divided into 99 compartments, across, aslant, and vertical. These are coloured red and black, and comprise descriptions of different diseases, showing name, prognosis, stage, symptoms, cures, etc., of the disease in question. There are rough decorative drawings at the top left margin of many pages.” (The Book of O’Lees [“Book of Hy-Brasil”]: Medical treatise, 2015, para. 1) 

The Edward Worth Library is another prominent collection that contains many early Irish medical manuscripts and texts. Located in the Dr. Steeven’s Hospital in Dublin, this collection was donated to the hospital at Worth’s request after his death in 1733. “Edward Worth was a physician whose taste in books radiated outwards from his professional concern with medicine…Beside medical books, ancient and modern (ie. 18th century), one finds important contributions to the study of related sciences, then philosophy, the classics, history etc. Worth was particularly interested in the book as object: the collection not only holds fine examples of sixteenth-century typography but is also considered to be the best collection of early modern book bindings in Ireland.” (Edward Worth Library, n.d., para. 2)

The Edward Worth Library and the medical manuscripts in the Royal Irish Academy reveal an ancient medical community dedicated to learning not just from their fellow peers in Ireland, but from physicians and scientists abroad. The medical community did not work in isolation, but actively sought out other sources to improve their own craft and medical knowledge.

Understanding pre-Christian Irish medicine is difficult due to the lack of information about the Druids and their customs. We see that even during ancient times, the Irish had a growing community of physicians who were important figures in the community. These medical communities grew and flourished, often establishing hereditary physician lines that worked for the lords and kings with excellent compensation for their services. Thankfully there are ancient medical treatises and texts that show how Irish physicians actively pursued international sources that were translated into Irish. If you’re interested in learning more about Irish medical history then read some of the sources listed in the ‘References’ section below! 

References:

Cunningham, Cantor, D., & Waddington, K. (2019). Early Modern Ireland and the World of Medicine: Practitioners, Collectors and Contexts. Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv18b5h6b

 Joyce, P.W. (1908). A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland, Treating of the Government, Military System, and Law; Religion, Learning, and Art; Trades, Industries, and Commerce; Manners, Customs, and Domestic Life, of the Ancient Irish People. Longmans, Green, & Co., 1908.

Woods, J.O. (1982). The history of medicine in Ireland. Ulster Medical Journal, 51(1), 35–45.

The Book of O’Lees [“Book of Hy-Brasil”]: Medical treatise. (2015, August 31). Royal Irish Academy. https://www.ria.ie/library/catalogues/special-collections/medieval-and-early-modern-manuscripts/book-olees-book-hy

The Edward Worth Library. (n.d.). Edward Worth Library. Retrieved March 15, 2022, from https://edwardworthlibrary.ie/

Subtracting insult from injury: The medical judgements of the Brehon Law. (2013, March 7). History Ireland. https://www.historyireland.com/subtracting-insult-from-injury-he-medical-judgements-of-the-brehon-law/#:~:text=The%20Brehon%20Law%20was%20the

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The United Nations first celebrated International Women’s Day on March 8, 1975 and two years later, the international organization designated March 8 as an annual day of observation for International Women’s Day. This awareness day is celebrated in a variety of ways depending on the country. Many people use the day to honor the successes of women and various gender equality movements, while also raising awareness on the issues that continue to impact women such as pay inequality and the disproportionate impact of climate change on women and children. 

Though the UN didn’t designate March 8 as International Women’s Day until 1977, the day originated in the early 1900s during labor rights protests and the suffrage movement. “The impetus for establishing an International Women’s Day can be traced back to New York City in February 1908, when thousands of women who were garment workers went on strike and marched through the city to protest against their working conditions.” (Haynes, 2018). To honor the anniversary of these labor strikes, the first National Women’s Day was celebrated in the United States on February 28, 1909. The celebration was led by Clara Zetkin, a German organizer and socialist, who was instrumental in spreading the awareness day in Europe. Russia celebrated its first International Women’s Day in 1913, but in 1917, after suffering from poor economic and social conditions, many used the day to protest and express their outrage over the mistreatment they faced. Their strikes and protests led to Russian women gaining the right to vote that same year. Suffragists in other nations learned from the experience of the women in Russia and used similar tactics to eventually gain the ability to vote. The collaboration and solidarity of women across the world continued throughout the 1900s and their activism paved the way for International Women’s Day to become a globally recognized holiday. 

The International Women’s Day website offers resources and events to help you learn more about the day and connect with others who are invested in advocating for women’s equality. On March 8 at 2:00 pm, the National Cancer Institute will hold an event titled ‘Breaking Bias: Women in Healthcare and Science Leadership.’  On March 11 the ‘Reimagined in America: Advance Gender Equity’ event will discuss building gender equity policies and gender inclusive communities in the United States. The United Nations will also hold a virtual event on March 8 from 10:00 am- 11:30 am in celebration of International Women’s Day. The event will focus on climate change and its impact on women and children and will feature appearances from prominent international leaders and figures such as Jane Goodall and UN Leaders. Click here to register for this UN event! If you're interested in attending a local event, GWU's American Medical Women's Association (AMWA) will be holding a potluck to celebrate International Women's Day on March 8, 2022 from 12:00 pm- 1:00 pm in the Ross Hall Courtyard. Dean Bass will be a guest speaker! If you'd like to sign up to bring a dish to the potluck, use this Google Sheet.

There are many ways to observe International Women’s Day. It’s a time to reflect on the significant achievements of women around the world and the perfect time to commit to and work towards a more gender inclusive world. We hope you’ll learn more about the history of International Women’s Day or attend one of the many events that honor this holiday!

Work Cited:

Haynes, Suyin. (2018, March 8). The Radical Reason Why March 8 Is International Women’s Day. TIME Magazine. https://time.com/5187268/international-womens-day-history/

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Published on 1 Comment on African-Americans & Historical Washington D.C.
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African-Americans have always been a significant portion of Washington D.C.’s population. Since the cultivation of the land and eventual creation of the capital city, African-Americans, both enslaved and free, steadily flowed into the city and planted roots in certain neighborhoods such as U Street, Georgetown and Barry’s Farm. They formed communities that often bridged class divisions to support each other through adversity and advocated for the expansion of their rights, from equitable access to the voting booth to safe and affordable housing, issues that are still relevant today. Scattered throughout the city are monuments and memorials dedicated to some of the figures, social-political movements and institutions that were pivotal in supporting the African-American community. As this year’s Black History Month comes to a close, we’d like to highlight some of the people, locations, landmark court cases and other historical moments that created the foundation that many Black Washingtonians stand on today.

Benjamin Banneker (1731-1806)- A native Marylander, Benjamin Banneker was a mathematician and amateur astronomer who helped survey the land and establish boundaries for the newly commissioned capital of the United States. Banneker received little formal education and taught himself many of the skills he frequently used. When Andrew Ellicott, a cousin of Banneker’s neighbor George Ellicott, was tapped to survey the land that eventually became Washington D.C., Andrew brought along Banneker to assist with the project. In the 1600s and 1700s the land around the future capital was primarily farm land, specifically tobacco plantations that heavily relied on slave labor. When the survey team arrived, they had to navigate a landscape that looked vastly different from the city of our time. Because of his age and the demands of the physical labor that the project required “Banneker…concentrated on the intellectual tasks of calibrating instruments, making mathematical projections, and calculating distances accurately.” (Asch & Musgrove, 2017, p. 27) Banneker also advocated for emancipation for enslaved Africans. In a letter to Thomas Jefferson, he expressed his desire to see enslaved people freed and argued that African-Americans could contribute to society if they were given the opportunities to govern themselves. Benjamin Banneker died in 1806 in Maryland and was buried in his family’s burial grounds. Overlooking L’Enfant Plaza in the southwest sector of D.C. is a park dedicated to Benjamin Banneker. This park is one of many sites in the country that pays tribute to Banneker’s work and legacy. 

Queen v. Hepburn (1813)- Slavery was a dominant function of Washington D.C’s society, much like other parts of the country. While enslaved people in Washington experienced some small forms of freedom and independence, unlike those who labored on Southern plantations, they still sought ways to experience full freedom. Freed African-Americans would often ‘purchase’ their enslaved relatives. But some enslaved individuals used the courts to gain their freedom. Mina Queen, an enslaved woman in Maryland, pursued this route in the 1810s when she argued for her freedom by insisting that her great-grandmother was a free woman and this freedom passed down to Mina. She hired Francis Scott Key to represent her and her case circulated through the legal system before eventually reaching the Supreme Court. Unfortunately the Supreme Court ruled against Mina and her eventual fate is unknown. Chief Justice John Marshall “dismissed the use of hearsay testimony to establish one’s legal status, ruling that in legal terms enslaved people were considered property. If the Court allowed such hearsay evidence, Marshall argued ‘no man could feel safe in any property.’” (Asch & Musgrove, 2017, pp.42-43) While the Queen v. Hepburn case was a setback for enslaved people seeking their freedom, it also points to the ways in which they resisted the institution of slavery. This decision did not deter enslaved people from using the courts to gain their freedom and shows the many avenues African-Americans pursued before the Emancipation Proclamation.

Barry Farms (established. 1867)- Located in Southeast Washington, Barry Farms was created by the Freedmen’s Bureau after the end of the Civil War. While the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation freed enslaved people in the South, enslaved Washingtonians were actually freed a year earlier in 1862 with the passage of “An Act for the Release of Certain Persons Held to Service or Labor in the District of Columbia” that President Lincoln signed into law on April 16, 1862. (This date is remembered as Emancipation Day in D.C.) African-Americans flocked to the capital, putting further strain on the already limited housing market. The Freedmen’s Bureau was tasked with assisting the freed men and women adjust to their new lives. To help resettle African-Americans, the bureau purchased 375 acres of land, divided the land into one-acre plots and sold them for $125-$300 per acre. The purchase also included lumber to construct homes and residents had two years to pay off the costs. Over the years, Barry Farms developed into a thriving community which included hundreds of homesteads, a church, a school and other community institutions. The Barry Farms community exists today, though many residents are actively working to keep the neighborhood listed as an affordable housing option. Barry Farms did not completely end the housing crisis many Washingtonians experienced, but with time it developed into a well-established neighborhood for African-Americans.

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African-American Education in the District- Black Washingtonians saw access to education as a key feature that would benefit everyone. As more and more African-Americans migrated to the capital, individuals and charitable organizations worked to build public and private schools to teach reading, arithmetic and other subjects. Howard University, located near the popular U Street Corridor, was founded in 1867 and named after the Union general Oliver O. Howard. It was originally an integrated university, but primarily focused on educating black students. The Preparatory School for Colored Youth (later known as M Street High School and eventually Dunbar High School) was one of the first public high schools for African-American students. The high school was a well-respected and beloved institution for Black Washingtonians and it eventually became one of the top high schools in the country. Many of the schools wrestled with segregation and intense scrutiny from school board members or congressional leaders, but this didn’t dissuade individuals from seeking to educate themselves. Many African-Americans saw a formal education as their ticket to a better life.

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Mary Church Terrell (1863-1954)- Born in Tennessee, Mary Church Terrell was an educator, activist and one of the first Black women to earn a college degree. She was an influential figure in the community. She taught Latin at M Street High School and was eventually appointed to the Board of Education, making her the first Black woman to ever sit on a school board in the country. In 1896, she helped found the National Association of Colored Women. Terrell believed in “uplifting” the Black community and worked tirelessly with other organizations to fight against racial discrimination. When African-American women secured the right to vote with the passage of the 19th amendment, Terrell focused on other forms of discrimination such as inequitable access to education and racial discrimination by businesses. Her home, located in the LeDroit Park neighborhood, is considered a National Historic Landmark and in 2020 she was inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame.

“Black Broadway”/ U Street Corridor- With it’s close proximity to Howard University, the blocks of U Street are filled with restaurants, bars and clubs where many Washingtonians unwind after the work week. But from the early to mid 1900s, U Street was a hub of entertainment and commerce for African-Americans who were denied access to many theaters, businesses and other venues because of Jim Crow laws. Before the Harlem Renaissance, U Street was filled with nightclubs, theaters and restaurants that catered to middle-class and affluent African-Americans and was seen as a place of cultural significance. U Street “boasted more than three hundred black-owned businesses and organizations, including the Whitelaw Hotel and the Industrial Savings Bank, both established by a remarkable, unschooled black entrepreneur named John Whitelaw Lewis.” (Asch & Musgrove, 2017, p. 239) Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington, one of the most well-known composers and jazz musicians, grew up near the historic U Street Corridor and performed some of his earliest shows in the neighborhood’s theaters. Though the area experienced hardships in the 1960s to the 1990s, it has once again become a popular section of the District and is remembered for providing entertainment to African-Americans after the Great Depression.

It is difficult capturing every historical event that holds meaning to the African-American community in Washington D.C. While the capital was not immune to the racial tensions and divisions that impacted the rest of the country, many African-Americans believed Washington D.C. was a haven and people moved to the city in search of a better life. There are ongoing changes to the capital’s population, but it’s important to remember the history and experiences of the individuals and organizations that helped shape Washington D.C.

Work Cited:

  Asch, & Musgrove, G. D. (2017). Chocolate City : a history of race and democracy in the nation’s capital. The University of North Carolina Press.

McQuirter, M. A. (n.d.) A Brief History of African Americans in Washington, DC. Cultural Tourism DC. https://www.culturaltourismdc.org/portal/a-brief-history-of-african-americans-in-washington-dc

Biography.com Editors. (2014, April 2) Benjamin Banneker Biography. The Biography.com website. https://www.biography.com/scientist/benjamin-banneker

Black Broadway on U: A Transmedia Project. (n.d.) Blackbroadway on U. https://blackbroadwayonu.com/

Further Readings:

 Black Georgetown Remembered: A History of Its Black Community from the Founding of “The Town of George” in 1751 to the Present Day by Kathleen Menzie Lesko, Valerie Babb & Carroll R. Gibbs

Leading the Race: The Transformation of the Black elite in the nation’s capital, 1880-1920 by Jacqueline M. Moore (available through a CLS request)

The Black History of the White House by Clarence Lusane (available through a CSL request)

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African-American authors have contributed to the body of American literature for centuries. From memoir to poetry and contemporary literature, African-American writers captured the history of the time from the Black perspective, commented on the current political and social conflicts and created fictional narratives that readers could escape to when the world was too daunting. The following list of recommendations scratches the surface of novels, memoirs, non-fiction books and other works penned by African-American authors:

  1. The Hate U Give by Angie Thomas: Debuting at number one on the New York Times bestsellers list, where it remained for fifty weeks, The Hate U Give is Angie Thomas’ debut young adult novel that deals with the Black Lives Matter movement. The novel follows Starr who witnesses the death of her friend, Khalil, during a traffic stop. For the rest of the story, Starr mourns Khalil’s death while building the courage to use her voice for good as the fragile social ties in her school and community shatter after the incident. 
  2. Hitting a Straight Lick with a Crooked Stick: Stories from the Harlem Renaissance by Zora Neale Hurston: A writer, anthropologist and folklorist, Hurston is most often remembered for her novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God published in 1937. In recent years there has been a renewed interest in Hurston’s work and some of her writing has been published posthumously, including this story collection published in 2020. This is a perfect collection for anyone interested in the Harlem Renaissance and the artists who still influence their respective creative fields to this day. 
  3. Just As I Am: A Memoir by Cicely Tyson: Actress, activist, and national icon, Cicely Tyson’s career lasted for seven decades and included films such as The Trip to Bountiful , Sounder, The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman and tv shows How to Get Away With Murder, Roots and King. Her 2021 memoir, published just two days before her death, is a stunning recollection of her childhood, her time as a stage and screen actress and the relationships that shaped her identity. Cicely Tyson’s memoir not only shares the life and legacy of a prolific actress, but also offers advice on how to live a meaningful life. 
  4. All Boys Aren’t Blue: A Memoir-Manifesto by George M. Johnson: According to the author, this collection of personal essays was inspired by Toni Morrison’s quote “If there’s a book you want to read, but it hasn’t been written yet, then you must write it.” Petra Mayer from NPR says about the book “Johnson draws readers into his own experiences with clear, confiding essays–from childhood encounters with bullies to sexual experiences good and bad, to finding unexpected brotherhood in a college fraternity, all of it grounded in the love and support of his family.” If you’re interested in reading this title, it will soon be available for checkout from Himmelfarb Library. 
  5. Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America edited by Ibram X. Kendi and Keisha N. Blain: This history of Black America starts in 1619 and ends in the present day. This historical collection includes essays, poems, short stories and other texts from different writers who all reflect on the formation of the African-American community and how their presence influenced American society. This title gives a different perspective of American history and introduces readers to a number of Black historians, essayists and authors. 
  6. Black Man in a White Coat by Damon Tweedy: This memoir provides insight into how race impacts African-Americans’ access to quality healthcare in America. “In this powerful, moving, and deeply empathetic book, Tweedy explores the challenges confronting black doctors, and the disproportionate health burdens faced by black patients, ultimately seeking a way forward to better treatment and more compassionate care.” (Macmillian.com) While the subject matter may be difficult to read, it sparks a necessary conversation about how race and other factors profoundly impact people’s connection to our healthcare system. 
  7. Parable of the Sower by Octavia E. Butler:  Octavia E. Butler was a science-fiction and fantasy author whose novels and short stories influenced many aspiring writers, particularly African-American speculative fiction authors. Parable of the Sower is the first novel in a planned series that unfortunately remains unfinished. The novel is set in the 2020s and deals with climate change, social inequality and political unrest. Parable of the Sower is an excellent novel for readers who want to begin to explore Butler’s body of work. 
  8. Brown Girl Dreaming by Jacqueline Woodson: Winner of the 2014 National Book Award for Young People’s Literature, Brown Girl Dreaming is a blend of poetry and memoir as it follows Woodson’s childhood years in rural South Carolina and New York. Speaking to NPR after the book’s publication, Loriene Roy the former head of the American Library Association, said “Once you dip into the pages you realize it’s a story for more than the brown girls…It’s for people who want to celebrate with them or anyone who wants to find that voice for themselves.” 

Many of these titles are available for checkout through Himmelfarb’s Consortium Loan Service. If you need assistance requesting a title through the Consortium Loan Service, please watch this tutorial. 

We hope this list will inspire you to search for other African-American writers and works that impacted both the African-American community and the wider American literary landscape. If you have a favorite author or book written by a Black author, share them with others in the comments.

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As we start the new semester in 2022, the Scholarly Communications Committee is pleased to share another round of short video lectures to help researchers navigate scholarly publishing and promotion. The short lectures will cover a variety of topics including promoting your research after publication, the research life cycle, open access publishing and much more. The new videos are available for viewing on the ‘Scholarly Communications Short Video Library’ and on Himmelfarb Library’s YouTube Channel under the ‘Scholarly Communications Videos’ playlist.

Here are the titles and descriptions for each video:

Promoting Your Research
Are you looking for ways to promote your research or publications? In this brief tutorial we cover basic social media promotion tips, tweetable abstracts, and the value of including your research in open access repositories. We also discuss the importance of ensuring that researcher profiles include accurate and up to date publication information.

Advanced Literature Searches and the MeSH Search Builder
This tutorial provides information on how to access and utilize the MeSH search builder using PubMed. We discuss how to perform advanced literature searches using this tool.

The Research Cycle
This tutorial provides an overview of the research lifecycle and describes what happens in each phase.

CREDiT taxonomy
Do you have questions about authorship credit and order? The CREDiT taxonomy can help! In this tutorial we discuss contributor roles and publishers that utilize CREDiT to ensure that researchers get credit for their work!

Retractions, errata, expressions of concern
In this tutorial we give an overview of retractions, corrections, and expressions of concern. We discuss reasons for retractions, the process of making corrections to published research, and look at examples in PubMed.

Open Access and Your Research
Is there value to publishing your research in an Open Access (OA) format? In this tutorial we define Open Access, give examples of different types of OA, and discuss options for publishing or archiving research in an OA format. 

Once you’ve finished watching the new videos, explore our video library and watch the previous short lectures to learn more about publication, promotion and the resources Himmelfarb Library offers. 

If you are a researcher with questions or concerns about publishing your research or looking for ways to promote your work to a wide audience, the Scholarly Communications Committee is here to assist you at every step of the process. Feel free to contact members of the committee via email by using the email address listed at the end of each video or contact Himmelfarb Library at himmelfarb@gwu.edu. If you have suggestions for future video topics, leave them in the comments or send an email and a staff member will share it with the committee.

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In the early 1980s there were official reports of once healthy, young, gay men falling severely ill and dying from an unknown illness. The first five reported cases included men ranging in age from 29 to 36, all displaying various symptoms and eventually developing pneumonia. In the summer of 1981, the CDC established a task force to study this new debilitating condition and since then researchers have worked diligently to understand and find treatment options. The condition and the virus that causes this illness were eventually named Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) respectively. Since its initial discovery, the spread of HIV has been classified as an pandemic and has impacted millions of people around the world. UNAIDS estimates that 79.3 million people have been infected with HIV since the beginning of the pandemic and as of 2020, approximately 37.7 million people currently live with HIV.  While there is no vaccine available to prevent HIV, over the decades researchers have discovered treatment options to help individuals manage their symptoms. Through ongoing research and clinical trials, HIV/AIDS researchers have several promising leads that could potentially help with the creation of a safe and effective vaccine that will contribute to the end of this decades long pandemic.

Researchers at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) are actively studying HIV and how it interacts with people’s immune systems by conducting research and clinical trials. Using a two step, complementary approach towards vaccine development, researchers not only learn new information about the virus, but they also hope to use their findings to develop a vaccine that can be distributed to the general public. Under the empirical approach, researchers rely on observation and experimentation to move different vaccine candidates into the human trial stages. With the theoretical approach, researchers seek to better understand the virus, how it impacts the human immune system and how a vaccine can bolster the immune response when a person is exposed to HIV. These two approaches allow researchers to quickly move vaccine candidates through the different stages of clinical trials.

Infographic depicting information on the history of HIV vaccine research.
Credit: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

One of the most significant HIV vaccine clinical trials in recent years was the RV144 Trial in Thailand. This study enrolled over 16,000 volunteers and took place over the course of several years, with researchers reporting their findings in 2009. This trial showed that the vaccine candidates offered some protection against HIV in humans, which was the first time researchers discovered a vaccine could potentially protect people from the virus. The RV144 findings are still being analyzed for how the vaccine combination used in the trial helps our immune responses and other studies hope to build off the modest success of the RV144 trial. In the late 2010s, two other important clinical trials began and their data may offer a glimmer of hope for vaccine development. Launched in 2017 by the National Institutes of Health and other research partners, the HVTN 705/HPX2008 or Imbokodo study enrolled HIV-negative women in sub-Saharan Africa and used a vaccine regime “based on ‘mosaic’ immunogens–vaccine components designed to induce immune responses against a wide variety of global HIV strains.” (“NIH and Partners Launch HIV Vaccine Efficacy Study”) A complementary study called HPX3002/HVTN 706 or Mosiaco used a similar vaccine regime and took place across several countries including the United States, Brazil, and Poland. The Mosiaco study volunteers were made up of HIV-negative men and transgender people from the ages of 18 to 60. The results from the Imbokodo and Mosiaco studies were released in 2020 and 2021 respectively, though it may take years before researchers have a full understanding of the impact of these two clinical trials. In more recent news, NIAID scientists published an article in Nature Medicine that highlighted promising results of an HIV vaccine candidate based on the mRNA program used to develop vaccines for COVID-19. The researchers found that the vaccine showed promise in mice and non-human primates. According to Dr. Paolo Lusso, who led the team of researchers, "We are now refining our vaccine protocol to improve the quality and quantity of the VLPs (virus-like particles) produced. This may further increase vaccine efficacy and thus lower the number of prime and boost inoculations needed to produce a robust immune response. If confirmed safe and effective, we plan to conduct a Phase 1 trial of this vaccine platform in healthy adult volunteers..." ("Experimental mRNA HIV vaccine safe, shows promise in animals") It is difficult to predict when a vaccine will be available to the general public. But the results from clinical trials like the RV144 trial offer hope that one day researchers will create a safe vaccine and bring an end to this decades long pandemic.

 Our understanding of HIV and AIDS continues to evolve. Treatment options are improving allowing individuals with HIV to live comfortably. And every day researchers work to develop a vaccine that will provide significant protection for individuals who may be exposed to the virus. This post is a short overview of the history and current state of HIV vaccine research. If you’re interested in learning more about the history of HIV vaccine development, please visit the NIAID’s website dedicated to HIV/AIDS research and be sure to read through their ‘History of HIV Vaccine Research’ timeline which includes brief information about other previous clinical trials not discussed in this article.  Or click the links embedded in this article to learn more about the specific clinical trials and their results.

References:

“Experimental MRNA HIV Vaccine Safe, Shows Promise in Animals.” National Institutes of Health (NIH), 9 Dec. 2021, www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/experimental-mrna-hiv-vaccine-safe-shows-promise-animals.

“Global HIV and AIDS Statistics-Fact Sheet.” UNAIDS, www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet. Accessed 20 Dec. 2021.

“History of HIV Vaccine Research.” NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 22 Oct. 2018, www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/hiv-vaccine-research-history.

“HIV Vaccine Development.” NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 15 May 2019, www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/hiv-vaccine-development.

“NIH and Partners Launch HIV Vaccine Efficacy Study.” NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 30 Nov. 2017, www.niaid.nih.gov/news-events/nih-and-partners-launch-hiv-vaccine-efficacy-study.

“NIH and Partners to Launch HIV Vaccine Efficacy Trial in the Americas and Europe.” NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 15 July 2019, www.niaid.nih.gov/news-events/nih-and-partners-launch-hiv-vaccine-efficacy-trial-americas-and-europe.

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Susie Walking Bear Yellowtail (Women's History Matters)

In an effort to remain accountable to communities who have been negatively impacted by past and present medical injustices, the staff at Himmelfarb Library is committed to the work of maintaining an anti-discriminatory practice. We will uplift and highlight diverse stories throughout the year, and not shy away from difficult conversations necessary for health sciences education. To help fulfill this mission, today's blog post examines the life and activism of Susie Walking Bear Yellowtail.

Susie Walking Bear Yellowtail was a Native American nurse who consistently advocated for better access to quality, culturally sensitive healthcare and during her decades long medical career, she documented and recounted stories of medical abuse that Native Americans frequently experienced when visiting hospitals or non-Native doctors. Yellowtail was one of the first Native American registered nurses and the first registered nurse from the Crow people. Her work as an activist paved the way for other medical professionals who sought to end harmful practices that frequently impacted lower-class families and people of color.

Yellowtail was born on January 27, 1903 on the Crow Indian Reservation in Montana. She was orphaned at a young age, but lived with an aunt who took care of Yellowtail and her sister. Like many young Native children, Susie Yellowtail attended an Indian boarding school until she met the Baptist missionary, Frances Shaw. Yellowtail traveled with Shaw to a Baptist convention in Denver, before moving to Oklahoma to complete her education at the Bacone Indian School. When Frances Shaw married and became Mrs. Clifford Fields, Yellowtail once again moved to the East where she lived with the Fields family. During this time, Susie Yellowtail enrolled in Northfield Seminary. Mrs. Fields paid for the tuition fees, but to afford her room and board, Yellowtail worked as a nanny and maid for the Fields family. Eventually she left the seminary and instead enrolled in a nursing program at Franklin County Memorial Hospital and completed her training at the Boston City Hospital School of Nursing. She received her degree in 1927 and worked in several different positions before returning to the reservation where she was born.

Working as a nurse for the Indian Health Service’s run hospital, Yellowtail witnessed firsthand the mistreatment many Crow people experienced during their appointments. She “documented instances of Indian children dying from lack of access to medical care, Indian women being sterilized without consent, and tribal elders unable to communicate their health concerns to doctors.” (Women's History Matters) Yellowtail sought to provide better treatment for her community and was vocal with her criticisms of the non-Native doctors, nurses and medical professionals who worked in the hospital. She blended her Crow culture and traditions with her medical education to care for Native patients who were nervous around the hospital staff or unable to access the hospital and its services. In 1929, Susie Walking Bear married Thomas Yellowtail and the two became major leaders on the reservation.

Thomas and Susie Yellowtail (Women's History Matters)

Susie Walking Bear Yellowtail served as a member of several reservation advisory committees and this eventually led to President John F. Kennedy appointing her to the Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee on Indian Health. She was reappointed to this position by both the Johnson and Nixon administrations. In this role, Yellowtail traveled to other Native American reservations and documented Native Americans’ experiences with visiting their hospitals. Almost immediately, she noticed a similarity in stories and used this information to create recommendations that would improve not only the relationship between Native Americans and health professionals, but also address years of harm that went unchecked. Susie Yellowtail continued her work for decades and died on December 25, 1981.

Yellowtail received recognition for her work both during her lifetime and after her passing. She was awarded the President’s Award for Outstanding Nursing by President Kennedy in 1962 and she was inducted into the Montana Hall of Fame in 1987. In 2002, she was also inducted into the American Nurses Association Hall of Fame.

While Susie Walking Bear Yellowtails’ career and advocacy efforts positively impacted the Crow people and other Native American tribes in her lifetime, her work served as an example on how health rights activists could monitor and document patient mistreatment by the medical field. Yellowtail used her Crow identity and nursing education to provide culturally sensitive care to the Native Americans who requested her services. As one of the first registered nurses of Native American descent, Susie Yellowtail embedded herself in the medical field and brought about long-lasting changes that can still be felt to this day.

Sources

“Susie Walking Bear Yellowtail: ‘Our Bright Morning Star.’” Women’s History Matters, 6 May 2014, montanawomenshistory.org/susie-walking-bear-yellowtail-our-bright-morning-star.

Theobald, Brianna. “Nurse, Mother, Midwife-Susie Walking Bear Yellowtail and the Struggle for Crow Women’s Reproductive Autonomy.” Montana The Magazine of Western History, vol. 66, no. 3, 2016. National Indigenous Women’s Resource Center, www.niwrc.org/resources/journal-article/nurse-mother-midwife-susie-walking-bear-yellowtail-and-struggle-crow.

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In an effort to remain accountable to communities who have been negatively impacted by past and present medical injustices, the staff at Himmelfarb Library is committed to the work of maintaining an anti-discriminatory practice. We will uplift and highlight diverse stories throughout the year, and not shy away from difficult conversations necessary for health sciences education. To help fulfill this mission,  today's post will highlight the Native Health Database.

The Native Health Database is an online collection that organizes and shares information related to the health and health care of American Indians, Alaska Natives and Canadian First Nations. The Native Health Database  “...provides information for the benefit, use, and education of organizations and individuals with an interest in health-related issues, programs and initiatives regarding North American Indigenous peoples.” 

Created in the 1990s, the Native Health Database is the final result of the merging of two different Native American health care collections, the Native Health History Database and the Native Health Research Database. When Dr. William W. Schottstaedt donated over 3,000 documents to the University of New Mexico’s Health Sciences Library and Informatics Center, the resources were compiled into the Native Health History Database. The historical documents  dated from 1672 to 1966 and were collected into a single database that focused on the history of health and healthcare of Native American people. 

The Native Health Research Database began in 1997 when the United States Indian Health Service contracted with The Health Sciences Library and Informatics Center to create a resource that covered the current landscape of Native American health. These two databases merged into the Native Health Database in 2007,  and recently transitioned to the Mukurtu CMS platform with the goal of giving Native American groups and individuals better control and access to the content that’s available for viewing and sharing. 

The Native Health Database does not require users to create an account to browse or access items in the collection, but registered users can save items to their personal collection for later review and registration is free. 

When searching for a resource, you can refine your search by the date, tribal or group affiliation, subject, resource type or by other parameters. Resource types include, but are not limited to, journal articles, editorials, guidelines and monographs. While the full resource  is not stored on the database,  the individual database records provide  information to guide you to the manuscript or document elsewhere.

 You may use the item’s identifier to search for the resource through an external link such as PubMed Central. If you’re interested in the physical copy of the resource, you can contact the Native Health Database administrator at hsc-nhd@salud.unm.edu to request access to the resource. Please note these requests are granted on a case-by-case basis. 

The Native Health Database is an excellent resource for  learning about the historical and current needs of Native American communities. With documents ranging from the late 1600s to now, the database covers a broad spectrum of topics and time periods. The content available through the Native Health Database is meant to serve as a springboard for individuals as they explore the specific topics and needs that directly impact Native American groups. By increasing their level of understanding of Native American health, medical professionals and researchers will have the ability to better address the needs of their patients or undertake research opportunities that are respectful of Native American people and communities. 

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[Indigenous Peoples' Day Poster] https://wbng.com/2021/10/08/biden-is-first-president-to-mark-indigenous-peoples-day-2/

In Washington D.C. and across the country today is Indigenous People’s Day, a holiday that recognizes, honors and celebrates Indigenous people, cultures and history.

Indigenous Peoples’ Day was first proposed in 1977 during the United Nations International Conference Discrimination against Indigenous People in the Americas. “Indigenous Peoples’ Day recognizes that Native people are the first inhabitants of the Americas, including the lands that later became the United States of America. And it urges Americans to rethink history.” The first state to adopt Indigenous Peoples’ Day as a recognized holiday was South Dakota in 1990 and since then more states have replaced Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples’ Day or celebrate the two holidays together. The movement to celebrate Indigenous Peoples’ Day is still ongoing as more states, towns and localities draft and adopt resolutions to recognize this holiday in lieu of Columbus Day. On October 8th, 2021, President Biden signed a proclamation in honor of Indigenous Peoples’ Day 2021, stating “On Indigenous Peoples’ Day, our Nation celebrates the invaluable contributions and resilience of Indigenous peoples, recognizes their inherent sovereignty, and commits to honoring the Federal Government’s trust and treaty obligations to Tribal Nations.”

As Indigenous Peoples’ Day becomes more widely recognized across the country, many states and towns hold educational and celebratory events where people can learn more about Indigenous people and tribes. Here are a few ways in which you can observe Indigenous Peoples’ Day this year:

  1. Read a book written by an Indigenous author- The list of published books, articles and other sources written by Indigenous people grows longer every year. “An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States” and it’s companion book “An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States for Young People” are texts that offer a different perspective on the pre- and post-colonial Americas. The books also offer a list of citations and sources at the end if you’re interested in learning more about a specific period or topic in Indigenous history. If you’re interested in reading Indigenous fiction, check out “Black Sun” by Rebecca Roanhorse, “There, There” by Tommy Orange, or select a book from Penguin Random House’s list of “Must-Read Books by Indigenous Authors”. 
  2. Attend an event- The National Museum of the American Indian is holding an online event titled ‘Youth in Action: Indigenous Peoples’ Day-Black-Indigenous Youth Advancing Social Justice’ today, October 11th, at 1 pm, with an on-demand video available for viewing after the event. And in November, the museum will hold a week-long Native Cinema Showcase with feature films, short films and panel discussions. The American Indian College Fund held an Indigenous Peoples’ Day concert on October 10th and the recording is now available for viewing. For an updated list of virtual and in person events, check out the ‘Celebrating Indigenous Peoples’ Day’ list from Indian Country Today! 
  3. Learn about Indigenous history and culture- There are two branches for the National Museum of the American Indian, one in Washington D.C., while the other is in New York. The D.C. location is open Wednesdays-Sundays from 10 am-5:30 pm. But if you’re unable to visit the physical location, the museum’s website offers virtual exhibits and educational resources. Start with the handout ‘Unlearning Columbus Day Myths’ or explore the Native Knowledge 360 learning module, which helps students and educators examine their approach to learning and understanding Native history. You can also search their collection with their online database. The virtual collection is divided into several different categories to help you refine your search or explore at your own pace and see if you come across a fascinating new piece of information.

Indigenous Peoples’ Day is a great opportunity to reflect on a new perspective to American history. It is also a time to think about Indigenous futures and how Indigenous culture impacts our society. No matter how you decide to celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day, recognize that learning history from a different point of view is one step in which we can create a more equitable and fair environment for all.

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In an effort to remain accountable to communities who have been negatively impacted by past and present medical injustices, the staff at Himmelfarb Library is committed to the work of maintaining an anti-discriminatory practice. We will uplift and highlight diverse stories throughout the year, and not shy away from difficult conversations necessary for health sciences education. To help fulfill this mission, today's blog post honors Dr. Helen Rodriguez Trias!

A pediatrician and women and children’s health advocate, Dr. Helen Rodriguez Trias deeply believed medical professionals must immerse themselves in the social issues impacting the communities they serve and wove this personal philosophy into her medical and advocacy work. Over the course of her career, she consistently spotlighted issues facing women and children, particularly those that were people of color, poor or disabled.

Dr. Helen Rodriguez Trias was born on July 7, 1929 in New York, though she spent the first few years of her life in Puerto Rico with her family. Upon her return to the United States, she faced racial discrimination while attending public school. Despite receiving good grades and her use of English, Dr. Rodriguez Trias was placed in special education classes. She remained in this setting until she recited a poem by heart and her teacher realized Rodriguez Trias was placed in the wrong class.

After completing high school, Dr. Rodriguez-Trias returned to Puerto Rico for college. During her time as a student, she became involved with the island’s independence movement and participated in a school-wide strike against the university’s chancellor, Jaime Rexach Benitez, who prevented the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party leader, Don Pedro Albizu Campos, from speaking on campus. Because of her involvement in the strike, Dr. Rodriguez-Trias was forced to return to New York City when her brother threatened to cut her off financially. She remained in the United States for several years before returning to the University of Puerto Rico, where she eventually graduated with a BA in 1957 and her medical degree in 1960.

Not long into her medical career, Dr. Rodriguez-Trias worked to address a major need within her immediate community. She established a newborn care clinic in the hospital and under her leadership, Puerto Rico experienced a 50% decrease in newborn mortality rates within the first 3 years of the clinic’s establishment. After completing her residency, she opened a pediatric practice in Puerto Rico and remained there until the 1970s.

At the time, Dr. Rodriguez-Trias was married, but divorced her husband before relocating to the United States. She often cited her divorce as a moment that deeply impacted her on a personal and professional level. "A watershed in my life was getting divorced in Puerto Rico....In my formation as a professional, there was always a kind of pressure to deny or not use a lot of your personal experience....But I was now discovering a whole other world out there through my personal experience of a deceptive marriage. That triggered quite a bit of growth in me toward understanding what happens internally to people, what happens in their lives and what they can do or not do...." (U.S. National Library of Medicine)

That experience would influence her for the rest of her career.

During the 1970s, Dr. Rodriguez Trias worked as the head of the pediatrics department at the Lincoln Hospital in the South Bronx. This was a diverse corner of New York with communities from all areas of the globe, including a large Puerto Rican population. During her tenure, Dr. Rodriguez Trias advocated for hospital employees to have a voice in administrative and patient-care issues. She frequently embedded herself in community conversations and encouraged the hospital medical professionals to engage with the community as well, so the medical staff had a better understanding of how outside issues impacted patients’ health.

Around this time, Dr. Rodriguez Trias also became heavily involved in the women’s movement and the women’s health movement, particularly on issues related to abortion access and the reproductive health abuse certain groups of women face. “While many women chose the [sterilization] procedure, health authorities pressured many other--especially working-class and poor women--to agree to it or falsely told them that it was reversible. Similar programs targeted poorer Black women and girls in the American South." ("Dr. Helen Rodriguez Trias") To combat these issues, Dr. Rodriguez Trias formed both the Committee to End Sterilization Abuse and the Committee for Abortion Rights and Against Sterilization Abuse. She testified before the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, advocating for the need for and eventually drafting federal guidelines for the reproductive procedure. The new guidelines featured three key components. First, doctors were required to explain the procedure in language that was accessible and easy to understand. Second, patients were required to submit written consent. Lastly, there was a mandatory wait period between the submission of consent and the medical procedure.

Dr. Rodriguez Trias would continue to speak up for women and children and their access to healthcare for the remainder of her career. On January 8, 2001, President Bill Clinton awarded Dr. Rodriguez Trias with the Presidential Citizen’s Award in recognition of her advocacy work for women and children impacted by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. And in 2019, New York City commissioned a statue of Dr. Rodriguez Trias that will be placed near the location where Lincoln Hospital once stood.

Dr. Helen Rodriguez Trias' life and career serve as examples for medical professionals who wish to impact their patients' lives outside of the hospital or private practice. She dedicated her time and energy to stand alongside the communities who needed equitable access to care and recognized that many outside factors impacted a person's level of health.

To learn more about Dr. Helen Rodriguez Trias, please explore Himmelfarb's catalogue which features articles written by the doctor. Or start with 'The Face of Women's Health: Helen Rodriguez-Trias' written by Joyce Wilcox for the American Journal of Public Health.

Bibliography:

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