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Tag: Black History Month

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Black History Month. Image of Dr. Numa P.G. Adams with his name beneath.
Image from Wikipedia.

In honor of Black History Month, Himmelfarb Library celebrates the life of Dr. Numa Pompilius Garfield Adams, the first Black Dean of Howard University’s College of Medicine. Numa P.G. Adams was born in 1885 in Delaplane, Virginia, about 55 miles west of Washington, D.C. His grandmother, Mrs. Amanda Adams, an important figure in Adams’ life, was a respected midwife who assisted in delivering hundreds of babies (Cobb, 1951). According to a 1951 article in the Journal of the National Medical Association, Adams’ grandmother “inspired the beginning of his scientific curiosity” through her “vast knowledge of medicinal herbs” (Cobb, 1951). 

At age 13, Adams’ family moved to Steelton, Pennsylvania. Adams bought a second-hand cornet in Pennsylvania and learned to play (AAREG, n.d.). This musical ability would serve him well later in life when he played in bands to earn the money that would pay his way through college and medical school (Cobb, 1951). Adams attended public school in Pennsylvania and graduated high school with honors in 1905 (Cobb, 1951). After high school, he spent a year working as a substitute teacher in Steelton, followed by a year teaching seventh grade in Carlisle, Pennsylvania (Cobb, 1951).

In 1911, Adams received a bachelor’s degree from Howard University and earned a master’s degree in chemistry from Columbia University in 1912 (Cobb, 1951). Adams served as an instructor, assistant professor, and associate professor of chemistry at Howard University from 1912-1919, and as the head of the Department of Chemistry from 1918 to 1919 (Cobb, 1951). Adams left Howard University to begin medical school at Rush Medical College in the Spring of 1920 and received an M.D. after completing an internship at St. Louis City Hospital No. 2 in 1924 (Cobb, 1951).

In 1929, Adams became the first Black dean of Howard University College of Medicine, a role he would have until he died in 1940 (Lloyd, 2006). He is largely remembered for his fervent recruitment of young faculty members, specifically young Black faculty. Through funding from the General Education Board, Adams was able to send these young Black faculty members for “two years of advanced training at prestigious universities and hospitals around the country” (Lloyd, 2006). Dr. Charles Drew was among the faculty members Adams recruited into this program. During his final years as Dean, Adams was instrumental in integrating Howard University and Freedman’s Hospital (AAREG, n.d). 

Adams also continued to work on projects outside of the medical school. Adams was active in numerous professional organizations. He served as Chairman of the Commission on Medical Education and was a member of the Advisory Committee on the Legislation of the National Medical Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Hygiene Society, and the National Tuberculosis Association just to name a few (Maloney, 1940). 

Adams was a staunch supporter of medical libraries, and when he was shown plans for the Homer G. Phillips Hospital in St. Louis, “he quietly pointed out that he saw no provision for a library and a first-class hospital must have a good library” (Cobb, 1951). Adams even published a piece in the Journal of the National Medical Association titled “Medical Libraries in Approved Hospitals for Negroes” in 1938. In this article, he states: 

“No investment of hospital funds will produce bigger or better income than that made in the blossoming and maintenance of an adequate medical library. For an approved hospital the provision of such a library is an obligation.” (Adams, 1938)

Adams died on August 29, 1940, at Billings Hospital in Chicago, Illinois. Maloney said of Adams in a published memorial that Adams was a “builder of brains” and the “builder and conservator of health” (Maloney, 1940). Adams was highly thought of by those who knew him, including Dr. Robert A. Lambert, former Associate Medical Director of The Rockefeller Foundation. Lambert stated that his “estimate of Dr. Adams may be summarily expressed in the designation man of wisdom, fine sensibility, clear judgment, patient determination, and courageous action” (Cobb, 1951). Dr. Joseph L. Johnson, former Dean of Howard University School of Medicine stated that “to know Numa Adams was to respect, to admire, and to love him. He was of a brilliant mind and was always the quiet, unassuming, soft-spoken gentleman. One could never know of his greatness from his lips” (Cobby, 1951).

References:

Adams N. P. (1938). Medical Libraries in Approved Hospitals for Negroes. Journal of the National Medical Association, 30(2), 49–53.

African American Registry (AAREG). (n.d.). Numa P.G. Adams, doctor, and educator born. AAREG Stories. https://aaregistry.org/story/numa-p-g-adams-born/

Cobb, W.M. (1951). Numa P. G. Adams, M.D., 1885-1940. Journal of the National Medical Association, 43(1), 42–54.

Lloyd, Jr., S.M. (Last updated May 2006). History. Howard University College of Medicine. https://medicine.howard.edu/about/history

Maloney A. H. (1940). In Memoriam: Numa Pompilius Garfield Adams. Journal of the National Medical Association, 32(6), 257–258.

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In 2022, Himmelfarb Library published a list of books to read by African-American authors in honor of Black History Month. The list featured authors across different genres such as Young Adult, Science-Fiction, Contemporary Fiction and more. We wish to revisit this list of recommendations and offer more titles that shine a light on the experience of African-Americans in the United States. 

  • Let Us Descend by Jesmyn Ward:  This novel follows Annis, a teenager living through the system of slavery in the United States as she is forced from the Carolinas down to New Orleans. Reviewer Gabino Iglesias wrote in their NPR review: “Readers will walk with Annis, see the world through her eyes, and feel the pain of everything she experiences–but that journey, that suffering, will give them clarity and help them develop a deeper understanding of love, grief, and the realities of slavery.”
  • Chang Gang All Stars by Nana Kwame Adjei-Brenya:  This debut novel is a satirical examination of consumerism and the prison system. It follows the lives of prisoners and “prize-fighters” Loretta Thurwar and Hamara Stacker who participate in televised fights to gain their freedom from the prison system. This novel was named one of the Top 10 books of 2023 by the New York Times. Giri Nathan writes in their review “As the plot careers forward, Adjei-Brenyah uses footnotes as tethers between fiction and reality, reminding us that his gladiatorial farce is just a little tragicomic leap from an extant American horror.” It may feel easy to get lost in the action between fighters, but readers will also be forced to reflect on their own attitudes towards incarcerated people and the prison system in America. 
  • The Heaven & Earth Grocery Store by James McBride: This is a murder mystery set in Pennsylvania in a multicultural neighborhood and moves non sequentially through time, starting in the 1970s before jumping back to the 1920s and 1930s as it examines themes of community, prejudice and class. Maureen Corrigan writes that “McBride’s roving narrator is, by turns, astute, withering, giddy, daming and jubilant. He has a fine appreciation for the human comedy: in particular, the surreal situation of African Americans and immigrant Jews in a early-to-mid-20th-century America that celebrates itself as a color-blind, welcoming Land of Liberty.” This novel is an enlightening, hopeful and entertaining piece of literature from a well-established and celebrated American novelist. 
  • Thicker than Water by Kerry Washington: From a GWU alum, this memoir provides an intimate look at Kerry Washington’s life and career. Washington is a well-known TV and film actress who rarely shares details about her personal life. The memoir is Washington’s space where she discusses the hard moments of her life such as disordered eating, her career after the TV show ‘Scandal’ and other events. To learn more about Washington’s thoughts about her memoir, watch her Good Morning America interview with Robin Roberts:
  • The Warmth of Other Suns by Isabel Wilkerson: Wilkerson is well known for investigative book Caste: the Origins of our Discontents, her Pulitzer Prize winning journalism while working at the New York Times or from the new Ava DuVernay film, Origins. But her first book, The Warmth of Other Suns is another important piece of work that details the Great Migration, the time between 1910 and 1970 when many African-Americans and their families left Southern states for Northern cities. “The driving force behind the mass movement was to escape racial violence, pursue economic and educational opportunities, and obtain freedom from the oppression of Jim Crow.” (National Archives, 2021) The Warmth of Other Suns covers an important historical event that is not often discussed and the book is a good introduction into Wilkerson’s work as a whole.
  • Call Us What We Carry by Amanda Gorman: Many people first encountered Amanda Gorman during the 2020 Presidential Inauguration when she read her poem, The Hill We Climb. Her first poetry collection,  Call Us What We Carry was published in December 2021 and was instantly recognized as a best seller. In this collection, “Amanda Gorman captures a shipwrecked moment in time and transforms it into a lyric of hope and healing.”  (Penguin Random House, 2024 ) If you were moved by Gorman’s poem The Hill We Climb, then read more of her work in Call Us What We Carry. 
  • The Study of Human Life by Joshua Bennett: Dr. Joshua Bennett is an author and educator who currently serves as a Professor of Literature and Distinguished Chair of the Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The Study of Human Life is a collection of work that “recalls and reimagines social worlds almost but not entirely lost, all while gesturing toward the ones we are building even now…” (Penguin Random House, 2024) Some of the book's themes include family, parenthood, vulnerability and ecology. The book blends multiple genres including autobiography and speculative fiction and will challenge many readers. 

Other notable authors worth reading include Rivers Solomon, Jasmine Mans, Jericho Brown, Jason Reynolds, Audre Lorde and Colson Whitehead. Many of these titles may be requested directly from Himmelfarb Library, through the Consortium Loan Service or through Documents2Go.

African-American authors have contributed to all genres and learning more about their lives and works is a great way to expand your reading habits and discover a new favorite writer.

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Five people seated at a conference table.

Since 2020, many people have actively sought out books, podcasts, webinars and other media to help them understand the origins of and ways to dismantle systemic injustices. People interested in incorporating anti-discriminatory techniques and practices into their daily lives may find it difficult knowing where to start. Taking large steps such as attending a rally or contacting your elected official may appear to be the only way to move towards change. But smaller actions are equally important and necessary. 

According to scholars, without education and a deeper understanding of systemic harms, it is difficult to address these harms or work towards solutions. Education is the first and crucial step in uncovering implicit and explicit biases. If you are interested in learning more about the history of racism, sexism, homophobia or any other form of discrimination, please visit GW SMHS Office of Diversity and Inclusion’s Anti-Racism Resources for Physicians or explore any of the resources listed in the references section. Journalist Anna North quotes educator and author Cornelius Minor in a Vox article, stating “Once you’ve educated yourself, the next step is “to actually take action that benefits the members of your community…”” (North, 2020, para. 22)

Scholars, activists and others have suggestions for allies who wish to address long-standing systemic issues:

  1. Be mindful of how you use social media: Social media is a useful tool for spreading awareness, sharing resource lists, connecting with like-minded individuals/organizations or listening to marginalized voices. Yet the ease in which people can ‘like’, comment or reshare posts means people may engage with content on a superficial level or mimic their peers without a deeper awareness of why an issue is important. This may be seen as ‘virtue signaling’ or ‘performative allyship.’ Virtue signaling is defined as “an attempt to show other people that you are a good person, for example by expressing opinions that will be acceptable to them, especially on social media.” (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.) While performative allyship is “the practice of words, posts and gestures that do more to promote an individual’s own virtuous moral compass than actually helping the causes that they’re intending to showcase.” (Kersten, 2020, para. 6) Information moves rapidly on social media platforms and you may feel as if you need to share your opinion online. Before rushing to Facebook, Twitter or Instagram, ask yourself if you’re posting to alleviate your own anxiety or because you genuinely wish to show support and think about if there are alternative actions you can take instead of relying on social media. “With any kind of supposed social media activism, we need to be critical and examine who it’s actually helping and if there is a way it could be more effective.” (Rudhran, 2020, para. 11) There is no harm in expressing your support of marginalized communities online, but make sure your support is also visible and tangible offline. 
  2. Have difficult conversations: Challenging the opinions of your social circle can be hard and may activate complex emotions or responses. You may hear a harmful remark from a close friend or family member, but feel anxious about addressing the remark. “This physiological impact of conflict and stress prompts the brain to release cortisol and adrenaline into the bloodstream, putting the body into a fight, flight, or freeze response. In this state, we are biologically primed to respond to imminent danger–not to do complex thinking or bring our social graces to bear.” (Jackson, 2019, para. 23) Despite this, having difficult conversations not only provides space to educate and learn from others, but it also takes stress away from marginalized people who are already handling the stress of frequent systemic harm. If you’d like to engage in more in-depth conversations, there are resources that can assist you such as this guide from Teaching Tolerance or this article from Jamilah King. (North, 2020)
  3. Donate time or resources: Volunteering is a great way to connect with your local community. Nonprofit organizations often rely on volunteers to operate and deliver relief to the neighborhood. If there is an organization you’re interested in helping, research to see if they have volunteer opportunities. You can commit to becoming a regular volunteer or you can volunteer as your schedule permits. Consider bringing friends or family members with you as well. If you’re unable to volunteer your time, then think about making a financial donation to an organization if it is feasible. No matter how you decide to donate time or resources, supporting and uplifting organizations is a way to reaffirm your commitment to anti-discrimination ideals. 
  4. Speak out against discriminatory practices: Being aware of and understanding socioeconomic disparities enables you to speak out against discriminatory policies and practices that discriminate. In the workplace, long-standing hiring practices may unintentionally keep the selection pool small and homogeneous. If you’re in a position to evaluate hiring practices, speak up. “If you’re hiring, strengthen your own processes. Insist on open job listing and targeted recruiting to avoid an overreliance on referrals…Make sure candidate pools are diverse–with at least one person and ideally many people from marginalized groups. Finally, enforce fair application reviews and committee deliberations, watching for and calling out red-flag comments.” (Melaku et al., 2020, para. 32) You can also push back against harmful laws and regulations by contacting your elected representatives, attending community forums, signing petitions or by participating in other civic duties. 
  5. Admit mistakes: Being an ally means being visibly and vocally supportive of marginalized communities. But sometimes people make mistakes. If this occurs, it is best to admit to the mistake, pause for reflection and continue to show support where you can. “Being an ally is an ongoing process, and you are bound to say or do the wrong thing at certain points. Sometimes, the best way to learn is through trial and error. The important thing is to acknowledge when you’re wrong, and to not make those same mistakes again.” (Kersten, 2020, para. 10) View mistakes as opportunities to learn and grow. If someone corrects you, remain open and thank them for being willing to educate you. Being an ally does not mean you must aim for constant perfection. Instead it means offering support when you can and learning from any missteps you encounter. 

Education provides us with tools to grow and act as better allies. Action presents us with opportunities to show our commitment in tangible ways. Education and action create a steady cycle of allyship and advocacy that moves us closer towards an equitable and inclusive world. As this year’s Black History Month comes to an end and Women’s History Month approaches, spend time reflecting on how you wish to ally yourself with marginalized communities and search for opportunities to share your time or other resources with organizations in need of support. 

References:

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Image of Estelle Osborne. Estelle Massey Osborne (1901-1981) Paving the way for Black Nurses
Image from https://nursing.nyu.edu/news/events/30th-annual-estelle-osborne-legacy-celebration

In an effort to remain accountable to communities who have been negatively impacted by past and present medical injustices, the staff at Himmelfarb Library is committed to the work of maintaining an anti-discriminatory practice. We will uplift and highlight diverse stories throughout the year, and not shy away from difficult conversations necessary for health sciences education. To help fulfill this mission, today's blog post celebrates Black History Month by honoring Estelle Massey Osborne, a Black nurse who helped pave the way for Black nurses who followed.

Estelle Massey Osborne, known as “Stelle” to her family, was a hugely influential figure in American Nursing. Osborne was born in 1901 in Palestine, Texas, and was the eighth of William and Betty Massey’s eleven children. After completing two years of teacher training at Prairie View State Normal and Industrial College, Osborne worked as a public school teacher for two years (Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture [SCRBC], n.d.). Following an act of violence committed at the school that almost resulted in her death, Osborne moved to St. Louis, where her brother Edward was a dentist, to pursue a career in nursing (SCRBC, n.d.). 

When Osborne began her nursing studies, only 14 of the 1,300 nursing schools in the country admitted Black students (New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing [NYU], 2020). During this time, the American Nursing Association (ANA) refused membership to Black nurses and the Navy would not enlist Black nurses (NYU, 2020). By the end of Osborne’s career, thanks to her hard work and dedication to advocacy in the field of nursing, she saw the fruit of her work through the positive changes in all of these organizations. 

In 1923, Osborne completed her nursing degree at the Graduate School of Nursing at St. Louis City Hospital, later the Homer G. Phillips Hospital (Encyclopedia.com, n.d.). In 1928, Osborne was the first Black nurse to receive the  Julius Rosenwald Fund scholarship (NYU, 2020). She then continued her education and received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1930 and a Master of Arts degree in 1931 from Columbia University Teachers College (SCRBC, n.d.). She was the first Black nurse to earn a Master’s degree (NYU, 2020). Meanwhile, she also spent time teaching at two local nursing schools and was the first African-American instructor at the Harlem Hospital School of Nursing (NYU, 2020). 

After completing her Master’s degree, she worked as a researcher for the Rosenwald Fund where she studied rural life in the deep South. Her work focused on investigating ways to improve health education and service to rural Black communities (NYU, 2020). Along with a team of scholars, she helped perform a behavioristic study on the health and welfare of Blacks in the South (Pitts Mosley, 2002). This research experience proved invaluable to Osborne’s later work and provided the exposure she needed to make an impact on professional nursing on a large scale (Pitts Mosley, 2002). 

Osborne served as the president of the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses (NACGN) for five years from 1934 to 1939 (SCRBC, n.d.). The NACGN was “established to promote professionalization, education, and practice opportunities for Black nurses throughout the country” (Pitts Mosley, 2002). In 1940, Osborne became the first Black Superintendent of Nurses at the Homer G. Phillips Hospital in St. Louis (NYU, 2020). The Homer G. Phillips Hospital was the largest exclusively Black, city-operated general hospital in the world and at the time served over 70,000 people (NYU, 2020). Osborne also became the first Black female director of the hospital’s nursing school. 

During World War II, Osborne worked as a consultant to the Coordinating Committee of Negro Nursing for the National Council for War Service (NYU, 2020). In 1943, in response to a severe shortage of nurses both at home in the United States and overseas within the military, Congress passed the Bolton Act. The Bolton Act was considered the largest experiment in federally subsidized education in U.S. history and appropriated $160 million dollars of federal funding to 1,125 nursing schools across the country (Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing [FPBSON], 2023). The Bolton Act also created the U.S. Cadet Nurse Corps which produced more than 124,000 nurse graduates over a five-year period (FPBSON, 2023). Osborne was instrumental in ensuring that Black nurses benefited from the Bolton Act funding in nursing education and financial aid (NYU, 2020). 

She was also influential in expanding the number of nursing schools accepting Black students and, with the help of strategic ally Eleanor Roosevelt, in convincing the U.S. Navy to lift its color ban and accept Black nurses in 1945 (NYU, 2020). As a result of Osborne’s influence, the number of schools accepting both Black and White students grew from fourteen to thirty-eight(Pitts Mosley, 2002). The Cadet Nurse Corps had also enlisted 2,000 Black students and was providing financial assistance towards their education (Pitts Mosley, 2002).

In 1946, Osborne became the first Black faculty member at what is now the NYU Rory Meyers College of Nursing (NYU, 2020). During her eight years at NYU, Osborne had the opportunity to mentor numerous Black students and nurses. “Her NYU affiliation also helped to disprove the belief that only White nurses were capable of obtaining and managing leadership positions in nursing” (Pitts Mosley, 2002). Over the next 20 years, Osborne would serve in numerous national leadership positions including as the first African American member of the American Nursing Association Board of Directors (1948-2952), Assistant Director of the National League for Nursing, the first Vice President of the National Council of Negro Women, a member of the National Urban League, and as an honorary member of Chi Eta Phi Sorority and the American Academy of Nursing (NYU, 2020). Osborne was named the NYU Department of Nursing “Nurse of the Year” in 1959 and was inducted into the ANA Hall of Fame in 1984, three years after her death (NYU, 2020). 

Estelle Massey Osborne’s impact on the field of nursing and on racial equity within the field is undeniable. Her influence and legacy live on through the long-lasting impact of her work. She did not back down from racial prejudices and worked to dismantle systemic racism within professional nursing. Her work has opened doors for Black nurses for generations to come.

References:

Encyclopedia.com. (n.d.). Osborne, Estelle Massey (1901-1981). Dictionary of women worldwide: 25,000 women through the ages. https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/osborne-estelle-massey-1901-1981

Estelle Massey Osborne [photograph]. (n.d.). 30th Annual Estelle Osborne Legacy Celebration. https://nursing.nyu.edu/news/events/30th-annual-estelle-osborne-legacy-celebration

Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing. (2023). The Bolton Act: Making the nursing profession more accessible to everyone. Case Western Reserve University. https://case.edu/nursing/about/history/bolton-act#:~:text=The%20Bolton%20Act%20of%201943,history%20of%20the%20United%20States

New York University Rory Meyers College of Nursing. (February 18, 2020) Celebrating Estelle Osborne, nurse trailblazer. NYU Rory Meyers College of Nursing. https://nursing.nyu.edu/news/celebrating-estelle-massey-osborne-nurse-trailblazer

Pitts Mosley, M.,O. (2002). Great Black nurses series: Estelle Massey Riddle Osborne. ABNF Journal, 13(5), 114-7. http://proxygw.wrlc.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/great-black-nurses-series-estelle-massey-riddle/docview/218904485/se-2

Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library. (n.d.). Estelle Massey Osborne papers, 1943-1967. New York Public Library Archives & Manuscripts. https://archives.nypl.org/scm/20749

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Published on 1 Comment on African-Americans & Historical Washington D.C.
Black and white photo of the Lincoln Theater and other buildings on U Street.
(Photo from Lincoln Theater Website)

African-Americans have always been a significant portion of Washington D.C.’s population. Since the cultivation of the land and eventual creation of the capital city, African-Americans, both enslaved and free, steadily flowed into the city and planted roots in certain neighborhoods such as U Street, Georgetown and Barry’s Farm. They formed communities that often bridged class divisions to support each other through adversity and advocated for the expansion of their rights, from equitable access to the voting booth to safe and affordable housing, issues that are still relevant today. Scattered throughout the city are monuments and memorials dedicated to some of the figures, social-political movements and institutions that were pivotal in supporting the African-American community. As this year’s Black History Month comes to a close, we’d like to highlight some of the people, locations, landmark court cases and other historical moments that created the foundation that many Black Washingtonians stand on today.

Benjamin Banneker (1731-1806)- A native Marylander, Benjamin Banneker was a mathematician and amateur astronomer who helped survey the land and establish boundaries for the newly commissioned capital of the United States. Banneker received little formal education and taught himself many of the skills he frequently used. When Andrew Ellicott, a cousin of Banneker’s neighbor George Ellicott, was tapped to survey the land that eventually became Washington D.C., Andrew brought along Banneker to assist with the project. In the 1600s and 1700s the land around the future capital was primarily farm land, specifically tobacco plantations that heavily relied on slave labor. When the survey team arrived, they had to navigate a landscape that looked vastly different from the city of our time. Because of his age and the demands of the physical labor that the project required “Banneker…concentrated on the intellectual tasks of calibrating instruments, making mathematical projections, and calculating distances accurately.” (Asch & Musgrove, 2017, p. 27) Banneker also advocated for emancipation for enslaved Africans. In a letter to Thomas Jefferson, he expressed his desire to see enslaved people freed and argued that African-Americans could contribute to society if they were given the opportunities to govern themselves. Benjamin Banneker died in 1806 in Maryland and was buried in his family’s burial grounds. Overlooking L’Enfant Plaza in the southwest sector of D.C. is a park dedicated to Benjamin Banneker. This park is one of many sites in the country that pays tribute to Banneker’s work and legacy. 

Queen v. Hepburn (1813)- Slavery was a dominant function of Washington D.C’s society, much like other parts of the country. While enslaved people in Washington experienced some small forms of freedom and independence, unlike those who labored on Southern plantations, they still sought ways to experience full freedom. Freed African-Americans would often ‘purchase’ their enslaved relatives. But some enslaved individuals used the courts to gain their freedom. Mina Queen, an enslaved woman in Maryland, pursued this route in the 1810s when she argued for her freedom by insisting that her great-grandmother was a free woman and this freedom passed down to Mina. She hired Francis Scott Key to represent her and her case circulated through the legal system before eventually reaching the Supreme Court. Unfortunately the Supreme Court ruled against Mina and her eventual fate is unknown. Chief Justice John Marshall “dismissed the use of hearsay testimony to establish one’s legal status, ruling that in legal terms enslaved people were considered property. If the Court allowed such hearsay evidence, Marshall argued ‘no man could feel safe in any property.’” (Asch & Musgrove, 2017, pp.42-43) While the Queen v. Hepburn case was a setback for enslaved people seeking their freedom, it also points to the ways in which they resisted the institution of slavery. This decision did not deter enslaved people from using the courts to gain their freedom and shows the many avenues African-Americans pursued before the Emancipation Proclamation.

Barry Farms (established. 1867)- Located in Southeast Washington, Barry Farms was created by the Freedmen’s Bureau after the end of the Civil War. While the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation freed enslaved people in the South, enslaved Washingtonians were actually freed a year earlier in 1862 with the passage of “An Act for the Release of Certain Persons Held to Service or Labor in the District of Columbia” that President Lincoln signed into law on April 16, 1862. (This date is remembered as Emancipation Day in D.C.) African-Americans flocked to the capital, putting further strain on the already limited housing market. The Freedmen’s Bureau was tasked with assisting the freed men and women adjust to their new lives. To help resettle African-Americans, the bureau purchased 375 acres of land, divided the land into one-acre plots and sold them for $125-$300 per acre. The purchase also included lumber to construct homes and residents had two years to pay off the costs. Over the years, Barry Farms developed into a thriving community which included hundreds of homesteads, a church, a school and other community institutions. The Barry Farms community exists today, though many residents are actively working to keep the neighborhood listed as an affordable housing option. Barry Farms did not completely end the housing crisis many Washingtonians experienced, but with time it developed into a well-established neighborhood for African-Americans.

Photo of books on a shelf
(Photo by Element5 Digital from Pexels)

African-American Education in the District- Black Washingtonians saw access to education as a key feature that would benefit everyone. As more and more African-Americans migrated to the capital, individuals and charitable organizations worked to build public and private schools to teach reading, arithmetic and other subjects. Howard University, located near the popular U Street Corridor, was founded in 1867 and named after the Union general Oliver O. Howard. It was originally an integrated university, but primarily focused on educating black students. The Preparatory School for Colored Youth (later known as M Street High School and eventually Dunbar High School) was one of the first public high schools for African-American students. The high school was a well-respected and beloved institution for Black Washingtonians and it eventually became one of the top high schools in the country. Many of the schools wrestled with segregation and intense scrutiny from school board members or congressional leaders, but this didn’t dissuade individuals from seeking to educate themselves. Many African-Americans saw a formal education as their ticket to a better life.

Black and white photo of Mary Church Terrell
(Photo from National Women's History Museum website)

Mary Church Terrell (1863-1954)- Born in Tennessee, Mary Church Terrell was an educator, activist and one of the first Black women to earn a college degree. She was an influential figure in the community. She taught Latin at M Street High School and was eventually appointed to the Board of Education, making her the first Black woman to ever sit on a school board in the country. In 1896, she helped found the National Association of Colored Women. Terrell believed in “uplifting” the Black community and worked tirelessly with other organizations to fight against racial discrimination. When African-American women secured the right to vote with the passage of the 19th amendment, Terrell focused on other forms of discrimination such as inequitable access to education and racial discrimination by businesses. Her home, located in the LeDroit Park neighborhood, is considered a National Historic Landmark and in 2020 she was inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame.

“Black Broadway”/ U Street Corridor- With it’s close proximity to Howard University, the blocks of U Street are filled with restaurants, bars and clubs where many Washingtonians unwind after the work week. But from the early to mid 1900s, U Street was a hub of entertainment and commerce for African-Americans who were denied access to many theaters, businesses and other venues because of Jim Crow laws. Before the Harlem Renaissance, U Street was filled with nightclubs, theaters and restaurants that catered to middle-class and affluent African-Americans and was seen as a place of cultural significance. U Street “boasted more than three hundred black-owned businesses and organizations, including the Whitelaw Hotel and the Industrial Savings Bank, both established by a remarkable, unschooled black entrepreneur named John Whitelaw Lewis.” (Asch & Musgrove, 2017, p. 239) Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington, one of the most well-known composers and jazz musicians, grew up near the historic U Street Corridor and performed some of his earliest shows in the neighborhood’s theaters. Though the area experienced hardships in the 1960s to the 1990s, it has once again become a popular section of the District and is remembered for providing entertainment to African-Americans after the Great Depression.

It is difficult capturing every historical event that holds meaning to the African-American community in Washington D.C. While the capital was not immune to the racial tensions and divisions that impacted the rest of the country, many African-Americans believed Washington D.C. was a haven and people moved to the city in search of a better life. There are ongoing changes to the capital’s population, but it’s important to remember the history and experiences of the individuals and organizations that helped shape Washington D.C.

Work Cited:

  Asch, & Musgrove, G. D. (2017). Chocolate City : a history of race and democracy in the nation’s capital. The University of North Carolina Press.

McQuirter, M. A. (n.d.) A Brief History of African Americans in Washington, DC. Cultural Tourism DC. https://www.culturaltourismdc.org/portal/a-brief-history-of-african-americans-in-washington-dc

Biography.com Editors. (2014, April 2) Benjamin Banneker Biography. The Biography.com website. https://www.biography.com/scientist/benjamin-banneker

Black Broadway on U: A Transmedia Project. (n.d.) Blackbroadway on U. https://blackbroadwayonu.com/

Further Readings:

 Black Georgetown Remembered: A History of Its Black Community from the Founding of “The Town of George” in 1751 to the Present Day by Kathleen Menzie Lesko, Valerie Babb & Carroll R. Gibbs

Leading the Race: The Transformation of the Black elite in the nation’s capital, 1880-1920 by Jacqueline M. Moore (available through a CLS request)

The Black History of the White House by Clarence Lusane (available through a CSL request)

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African-American authors have contributed to the body of American literature for centuries. From memoir to poetry and contemporary literature, African-American writers captured the history of the time from the Black perspective, commented on the current political and social conflicts and created fictional narratives that readers could escape to when the world was too daunting. The following list of recommendations scratches the surface of novels, memoirs, non-fiction books and other works penned by African-American authors:

  1. The Hate U Give by Angie Thomas: Debuting at number one on the New York Times bestsellers list, where it remained for fifty weeks, The Hate U Give is Angie Thomas’ debut young adult novel that deals with the Black Lives Matter movement. The novel follows Starr who witnesses the death of her friend, Khalil, during a traffic stop. For the rest of the story, Starr mourns Khalil’s death while building the courage to use her voice for good as the fragile social ties in her school and community shatter after the incident. 
  2. Hitting a Straight Lick with a Crooked Stick: Stories from the Harlem Renaissance by Zora Neale Hurston: A writer, anthropologist and folklorist, Hurston is most often remembered for her novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God published in 1937. In recent years there has been a renewed interest in Hurston’s work and some of her writing has been published posthumously, including this story collection published in 2020. This is a perfect collection for anyone interested in the Harlem Renaissance and the artists who still influence their respective creative fields to this day. 
  3. Just As I Am: A Memoir by Cicely Tyson: Actress, activist, and national icon, Cicely Tyson’s career lasted for seven decades and included films such as The Trip to Bountiful , Sounder, The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman and tv shows How to Get Away With Murder, Roots and King. Her 2021 memoir, published just two days before her death, is a stunning recollection of her childhood, her time as a stage and screen actress and the relationships that shaped her identity. Cicely Tyson’s memoir not only shares the life and legacy of a prolific actress, but also offers advice on how to live a meaningful life. 
  4. All Boys Aren’t Blue: A Memoir-Manifesto by George M. Johnson: According to the author, this collection of personal essays was inspired by Toni Morrison’s quote “If there’s a book you want to read, but it hasn’t been written yet, then you must write it.” Petra Mayer from NPR says about the book “Johnson draws readers into his own experiences with clear, confiding essays–from childhood encounters with bullies to sexual experiences good and bad, to finding unexpected brotherhood in a college fraternity, all of it grounded in the love and support of his family.” If you’re interested in reading this title, it will soon be available for checkout from Himmelfarb Library. 
  5. Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America edited by Ibram X. Kendi and Keisha N. Blain: This history of Black America starts in 1619 and ends in the present day. This historical collection includes essays, poems, short stories and other texts from different writers who all reflect on the formation of the African-American community and how their presence influenced American society. This title gives a different perspective of American history and introduces readers to a number of Black historians, essayists and authors. 
  6. Black Man in a White Coat by Damon Tweedy: This memoir provides insight into how race impacts African-Americans’ access to quality healthcare in America. “In this powerful, moving, and deeply empathetic book, Tweedy explores the challenges confronting black doctors, and the disproportionate health burdens faced by black patients, ultimately seeking a way forward to better treatment and more compassionate care.” (Macmillian.com) While the subject matter may be difficult to read, it sparks a necessary conversation about how race and other factors profoundly impact people’s connection to our healthcare system. 
  7. Parable of the Sower by Octavia E. Butler:  Octavia E. Butler was a science-fiction and fantasy author whose novels and short stories influenced many aspiring writers, particularly African-American speculative fiction authors. Parable of the Sower is the first novel in a planned series that unfortunately remains unfinished. The novel is set in the 2020s and deals with climate change, social inequality and political unrest. Parable of the Sower is an excellent novel for readers who want to begin to explore Butler’s body of work. 
  8. Brown Girl Dreaming by Jacqueline Woodson: Winner of the 2014 National Book Award for Young People’s Literature, Brown Girl Dreaming is a blend of poetry and memoir as it follows Woodson’s childhood years in rural South Carolina and New York. Speaking to NPR after the book’s publication, Loriene Roy the former head of the American Library Association, said “Once you dip into the pages you realize it’s a story for more than the brown girls…It’s for people who want to celebrate with them or anyone who wants to find that voice for themselves.” 

Many of these titles are available for checkout through Himmelfarb’s Consortium Loan Service. If you need assistance requesting a title through the Consortium Loan Service, please watch this tutorial. 

We hope this list will inspire you to search for other African-American writers and works that impacted both the African-American community and the wider American literary landscape. If you have a favorite author or book written by a Black author, share them with others in the comments.

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