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Category: Diversity, Inclusion, & Accessibility

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Images of Dr. Margaret Chung, Dr. Virginia Alexander, Henrieta Villaescusa, and Estelle Brodman.

In honor of Women’s History Month, Himmelfarb Library celebrates the lives of four influential women within the health sciences. Today, we honor: Dr. Margaret Chung, the first Chinese American woman to become a physician; Dr. Virginia Alexander, African American physician and public health expert who fought against racial discrimination in healthcare; Henrieta Villaescusa, the first Hispanic nurse appointed as Health Administrator of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare; and Estelle Brodman, a medical librarian who had a profound impact on the field of medical librarianship.

Dr. Margaret Chung: The First Chinese American Woman Physician

Image of Dr. Margaret Chung.
Public domain image retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/people/dr-margaret-mom-chung.htm

Margaret Jessie Chung, born in Santa Barbara, California in 1889 and the daughter of Chinese immigrants, dreamed of becoming a medical missionary to China from a young age. She graduated from the University of Southern California Medical School in 1916 as the first American-born Chinese female doctor (PBS, n.d.). As a medical student, Chung was the only woman in her class, and often wore masculine clothing and referred to herself as “Mike” (Wagner, 2021a). 

After graduating medical school, she was denied residencies and internships in local hospitals and was rejected from becoming a medical missionary based largely on her race (Stanford Libraries, n.d.). She moved to Chicago where she completed an internship and residency in surgery and psychiatry (Stanford Libraries, n.d.). She returned to California and accepted a staff physician position at the Santa Fe Railroad Hospital in Los Angeles where she specialized in emergency plastic surgery for victims of  railroad accidents (PBS, n.d.). She soon started a private practice that catered to the actors and musicians of Hollywood’s growing entertainment industry (Wagner, 2021a). In the early 1920s, she moved to San Francisco where she helped establish the first Western hospital in San Francisco’s Chinatown (PBS, n.d.). She led the OB/GYN and pediatrics units.

In the 1930s, during the Japanese invasion of China and the Sino-Japanese War, Dr. Chung became friends with a U.S. Navy Reserves officer, Steven G. Bancroft and his friends. The group saw her as a motherly figure and adopted her as “Mom” (Wagner, 2021a). Dr. Chung was instrumental in the creation of Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), a reserve corps for women in the Navy (Wagner, 2021a). Although WAVES helped lay the groundwork for women’s integration into the U.S. armed forces, Chung was not permitted to serve, likely a result of her race and sexuality (PBS, n.d.) and she never received credit for her efforts in WAVES creation (Wagner, 2021a).  Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, the author of Chung’s biography, wrote that Chung “was not afraid to break barriers” (Stanford Libraries, n.d.). Chung’s fearlessness in breaking down barriers paved the way for other women and minority physicians to do the same!

Dr. Virginia Alexander: Pioneer of Public Health Equity 

Image of Dr. Virginia Alexander
Photo from https://files-profile.medicine.yale.edu/images/5e62b755-ac78-4a58-ba0b-b88675a5548d

 

Virginia Alexander was born in 1899 to formerly enslaved parents in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her family faced financial hardships when she was a child. Her mother died when she was only four years old, and her father lost his livery stable when she was 13. The financial strain this placed on the family did not stop Alexander from pursuing her education, something her father was adamant that she continue. She was awarded a scholarship to the University of Pennsylvania and worked as a maid, a clerk and a waitress to pay her living expenses (NIH, 2015).

She went on to medical school at the Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania (Wagner 2021b). During medical school, Alexander experienced racism as one of the only Black students in her class (Wagner, 2021b). After finishing medical school, Alexander had trouble landing an internship because of her race and even her own medical school’s hospital did not accept Black doctors (Wagner, 2021b). She eventually landed a position at the Kansas City Colored Hospital. 

Dr. Alexander soon returned to Philadelphia and opened up her own community health clinic out of her home, Aspiranto Health Home (NIH, 2015). The clinic focused on treating Black patients who were refused treatment from white staff in Philadelphia hospitals free of charge (Wagner, 2021b). She cared for pregnant women and young mothers, and also provided contraceptives to women free of charge (Finlay, 2020). Over five years, Dr. Alexander saw 2,000 patients and delivered 43 babies (Finlay, 2020). 

In 1935, she conducted a study on race and public health in North Philadelphia that found “shocking disparities in health outcomes among Black and white residents'' (Wagner, 2021b). Her data showed that Black babies died at more than twice the rate than that of white babies, and that Black people were dying of tuberculosis at a rate six times higher than the white population in the city (Wagner, 2021b). Her work also exposed racial discrimination in segregated wards at hospitals and linked this issue to the inequality of social conditions including inadequate sanitation in Black neighborhoods (Wagner, 2021b). 

Dr. Alexander later earned a Master’s of Public Health degree at Yale University and accepted a position at Howard University as the physician-in-charge of women students (NIH, n.d.). She advocated for the 1939 National Health Bill, an early attempt at a national health insurance system (Wagner, 2021b). During the 1940s, she served with the U.S. Public Health Service. During WWII, Alexander volunteered for the government and treated coal and iron miners who were living in extreme poverty in Birmingham, Alabama (NIH, n.d.). While there, she contracted lupus. She died in Philadelphia at the age of 49. She once said that “we will have to send physicians into sections which have no bright lights and … take public health across the railroad tracks, to serve those most in need of comfort and care” (NIH, n.d.). Dr. Alexander truly lived out this belief throughout the course of her life and incredible career!

Henrieta Villaescusa: The First Hispanic Nurse Appointed as Health Administrator

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Image from https://nahnnet.org/about/bios/Henrieta-Villaescusa

Henrieta Villaescusa was born in Tucson, Arizona in 1920. She attended Mercy College of Nursing in San Diego, received a Bachelor's degree from Immaculate Heart College, and a Masters Degree from UCLA (NAHN, n.d.). Villaescusa held a variety of nursing positions, and eventually worked for the Los Angeles City Health Department, where she became the only Hispanic supervising public health nurse (Pasadena Star-News, 2005). She later worked as part of the Center for Disease Control’s Hispanic/Latino subcommittee for the National Diabetic Education Program where she worked to address the needs diabetic patients in the Hispanic and Latino population (Pasadena Star-News, 2005). 

Villaescusa’s career was one of many firsts for Latino women. She became the first Hispanic nurse appointed as Health Administrator in the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (NAHN, n.d.). She was also the first Mexican American Chief Nurse Consultant in the Office of Maternal and Child Health within the Bureau of Community Health Services (HAHN, n.d.). In this capacity, she identified the needs, trends, and priorities in nursing research and training (Pasadena Star-News, 2005). 

Villaescusa was also the first Hispanic to serve as the Bureau of Community Health Services’ Federal Women’s Program Manager (Pasadena Star-News, 2005). In the 1960s, she was appointed to the Alliance for Progress, making her the highest ranking Mexican American in the Bureau (Pasadena Star-News, 2005). In this capacity, her impact reached beyond the United States. She worked to improve the health of people in Latin America by partnering with the academic and community health nursing leaders to “develop nursing education programs, curricula, and collaborative partnerships with local health professionals in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and Panama” (Pasadena Star-News, 2005). 

Throughout her career, Villaescusa worked closely with the National Coalition of Hispanic Health and Human Services Organization, and the Mexican American National Women's Association (NAHN, n.d.). She also served as the president of the National Association of Hispanic Nurses from 1984 to 1988 (NAHN, n.d.). Among her many other accomplishments, Villaescusa served as an advisor to director of health programs with the Office of Economic Opportunity, was the the only Hispanic member of the Board of Nurse Examiners in California, and was chief nurse with the Division of Maternal and Child Health where “she was responsible for all nursing aspects of the maternal and child health programs in the country” (Pasadena Star-News, 2005). Villaescusa was truly a trailblazer and her career left a lasting impact on the field of nursing, nursing education, and healthcare!

Estelle Brodman: “A Towering Figure” within Medical Librarianship!

Image of Estelle Brodman
NLM Digital Collections (1951?). Estelle Brodman [Digital image]. National Library of Medicine Digital Collections. http://resource.nlm.nih.gov/101410948

Estelle Brodman was born in New York City in 1914, and grew up in a Jewish household that placed a high value on education and learning. This love of learning served her well in her chosen field of medical librarianship. “I find learning a great joy and a great pleasure, …[others] think of learning as something they are required to do, and I think of learning as something I want to do” she stated in her oral history (Messerle, 2010). 

Brodman’s father was a physician and she and her brother both intended to follow in his footsteps. While her brother became a psychiatrist, she was not accepted to medical school despite having a bachelor’s degree from Cornell University in histology and embryology (Messerle, 2010). Determined to have a career in the medical field, she ultimately decided to become a medical librarian and received a master's degree in library science from Columbia University (Messerle, 2010). 

Over the course of twelve years, she held a number of librarian positions at the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons Library. While serving as “Acting Librarian,” she was told that they would never make a women [head] librarian,” so she decided to get a Ph.D (MLA, 2016). She would go on to serve as the Chief of the Reference Division of the Army Medical Library, which would later become the National Library of Medicine (Messerle, 2010). 

In 1960, she was instrumental in developing and writing much of the Medical Library Assistance Act, which created regional resource libraries that were supported by the National Library of Medicine to improve medical library collections, upgrade facilities, and train medical librarians (Fee, 2015). Although the Medical Library Assistance Act was not passed until after Brodman had moved on, it had a “far-reaching impact” and contributed to the growth of medical librarianship and medical libraries (Messerle, 2010). 

Brodman later moved to Washington University in St. Louis. The position allowed her to teach, and she “was able to persuade them that just as any other department [the library] should do research and training” (MLA, 2016). Brodman developed the PHILSOM automation project, an automated serials control system, in the early 1960s (MLA, 2016). She was an early adopter of technology and later developed a training program in computer librarianship (Messerle, 2010). 

Brodman was active in professional associations including the a term as president of the Medical Library Association in 1964-65, the Special Library Association where she served as Director from 1949-1952, the NIH Biomedical Communication Study Section, History of Medicine Review Panel, the Council of the American Association for the History of Medicine, and the Presidential Commission on Libraries (MLA, 2016). She served as editor of the Bulletin of the Medical Library Association for ten years. In her work with the joint Medical Library Association/American Association of Medical Colleges Committee, she helped create guidelines for medical school libraries (MLA, 2016). When Brodman died in 2007, an article in The Journal of the Medical Library Association stated that we had lost “a towering figure of the profession” (Messerle, 2010). While she is no longer with us, her impact within the field of medical librarianship will not soon be forgotten!

 

References:

Fee, E. (October 22, 2015). The Medical Library Assistance Act of 1965. Circulating Now, National Library of Medicine website. https://circulatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/2015/10/22/the-medical-library-assistance-act-of-1965/

Finlay, M. (June 2020). “Guardian of the Health of Negro Women”: The Work and Legacy of Dr. Virgina Alexander. Drexel University College of Medicine Legacy Center Archives & Special Collections Blog. https://drexel.edu/legacy-center/blog/overview/2020/june/guardian-of-the-health-of-negro-women-the-work-and-legacy-of-dr-virginia-alexander/

Medical Library Association (MLA). (March 18, 2016). MLA Oral Histories: Brodman, Estelle (PhD, AHIP, FMLA)*. MLA website. https://www.mlanet.org/blog/brodman-estelle

Messerle J. (2010). Estelle Brodman, AHIP, FMLA, 1914–2007. Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA, 98(1), 6–8. https://doi.org/10.3163/1536-5050.98.1.004 Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2801987/pdf/mlab-98-01-6.pdf

National Association of Hispanic Nurses (NAHN). (n.d.). Henrieta Villaescusa, MPH, PN. NAHN website. https://nahnnet.org/about/bios/Henrieta-Villaescusa

National Institutes of Health. (June 3, 2015). Dr. Virginia M. Alexander Biography. https://cfmedicine.nlm.nih.gov/physicians/biography_5.html

Pasadena Star-News. (2005, March 9). Henrietta Villaescusa Obituary. Pasadena Star-News. https://www.legacy.com/us/obituaries/pasadenastarnews/name/henrietta-villaescusa-obituary?id=26841230

PBS (May 27, 2020). The First American-Born Chinese Woman Doctor. PBS American Masters website. https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/first-american-born-chinese-woman-doctor-ysk233/14464/

Stanford Libraries (n.d.). Dr. Margaret Chung. Rise Up for Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders. https://exhibits.stanford.edu/riseup/feature/dr-margaret-chung

Wagner, E. (December 9, 2021b). Dr. Virginia Alexander. National Park Service website. https://home.nps.gov/people/dr-virginia-alexander.htm

Wagner, E. (October 8, 2021a). Dr. Margaret “Mom” Chung. National Park Service website. https://www.nps.gov/people/dr-margaret-mom-chung.htm

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It is nearly impossible to pinpoint the exact start of Irish medical history as many sources, both primary and secondary, have been lost to time. Thankfully with the aid of historical town annals and medical manuscripts stored in either a private collection or at an institution, historians can peer into ancient times and learn more about professional medical practices in Ireland. Like many cultures, the medical traditions in Ireland were uniquely tailored to the lives and societal norms of the time period, often adapting to changes in the social hierarchy. There are books, articles and other scholarly sources that provide analysis and detailed overviews on Irish medical practices and we hope this article will encourage you to learn more. 

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Medicine & Religion: Pre-Christian Irish medical history is believed to be closely tied to the Druids and druidic practices. Due to a lack of firsthand knowledge about the Druids, their beliefs and practices, historians must separate facts from myths often ending up with inconclusive results. In Irish mythology, the Druid  “Diancecht' was known as the God of Healing and is said to have practiced hypnotism. He is said to have recognized fourteen disorders of the stomach.” (Woods, 1982 p. 35) Physicians and medical figures are woven into early Irish myths and legends, hinting at the importance of their profession during the ancient times when warfare was a common occurrence. “King Cormac who reigned in AD 227 made an order that all future monarchs of Ireland should at all times be accompanied by ten persons, a chief, a judge, a druid, a physician, a poet, a historian, a musician and three servants. This order apparently lasted until the death of Brian Boru in 1014 AD.” (Woods, 1982, p. 36) With the arrival of Christianity and the decline of the Druids, medical responsibilities shifted towards monasteries and Christian priests. 

Newly built Christian churches and monasteries contained separate wards and small hospitals that were dedicated to the care of sick or injured individuals. In these sick wards, the priests and nuns attended to their patients, often relying on prayer or herbal concoctions as remedies. Plagues were a common occurrence. There are documented cases of widespread sickness in 250 AD, 664-665 AD and the end of the sixth century when the bubonic plague reached Ireland. During these times, the Christian church grew in power as many in Ireland found comfort in Christian teachings. “The miracles of Christ, the miraculous power entrusted to his followers and the belief in the resurrection after death, gave hope to the sick and those living amidst a plague, while the Christian ethos of caring gave practical comfort.” (Woods, 1982, p. 37)  While secular physicians existed during these early times, for many years medical authority resided primarily with individuals and organizations tied to a religious background, starting with the ancient Druids before transitioning to the Christian priests once their faith reached Ireland. This union of medicine and religion lasted until the mid-twelfth century when medical authority once again shifted towards a new group of leaders and practitioners.

Hereditary Physician Families: The release of the ‘Papal Edict of 1163’ contributed to the downfall of the Christian church as a main source of medical authority. The edict prevented monks from performing surgery making it difficult for injured or sick people to rely on the church for care. As a result of this papal edict, hereditary physician lines grew in influence. Medical knowledge was usually passed from father to son even during the years when the Christian church was the primary healthcare provider. But from the mid-twelfth century to around the early seventeenth century, these hereditary lines established long-lasting connections with the Irish elites. These physicians were usually treated well and received fair compensation for their work. “The stipend usually consisted of a tract of land and a residence in the neighborhood, held free of all rent and tribute, together with certain allowances and perquisites: and the physician might practice for a fee outside his patron’s household” (Joyce, 1908, p. 267). Physicians were able to travel freely throughout the lands, even when they needed to travel into an unfriendly neighbor’s territory. These physicians typically possessed their own family medical book which contained medical treatises translated from other languages such as Greek or Latin as well as their own personal cures and recipes for common medicines. 

Despite the tremendous influence and respect these physicians earned, the Brehon Laws, Ireland’s main legal system for centuries, offered basic protections for patients if their physician intentionally or unintentionally harmed them during a procedure. Under the Brehon Laws a patient or their family could pursue litigation against a physician for any wrongdoing and in most cases the physician was forced to pay a fine in retribution. While physicians were well-respected members of the communities, these early patient protection legal codes point to the underlying danger of ancient and medieval medical practices. Even without the presence of a national medical board to issue medical licenses, early Irish physicians were held to a high standard and medical malpractice could lead to financial and legal consequences. 

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Collection & Preservation of Medical Manuscripts: Early Irish medical professionals relied on books to expand their understanding of medicine and how to treat the injured or infirmed. There was an active attempt at translating medical texts from other countries into Irish. Some of these medical manuscripts are stored in the Royal Irish Academy and they provide insight into the budding international medical community that existed during early and medieval times. For example, ‘The Book of O’Lees’ “contains a translation from Latin into Irish of a highly organised medical treatise, with 44 tables outlining details of diseases, each divided into 99 compartments, across, aslant, and vertical. These are coloured red and black, and comprise descriptions of different diseases, showing name, prognosis, stage, symptoms, cures, etc., of the disease in question. There are rough decorative drawings at the top left margin of many pages.” (The Book of O’Lees [“Book of Hy-Brasil”]: Medical treatise, 2015, para. 1) 

The Edward Worth Library is another prominent collection that contains many early Irish medical manuscripts and texts. Located in the Dr. Steeven’s Hospital in Dublin, this collection was donated to the hospital at Worth’s request after his death in 1733. “Edward Worth was a physician whose taste in books radiated outwards from his professional concern with medicine…Beside medical books, ancient and modern (ie. 18th century), one finds important contributions to the study of related sciences, then philosophy, the classics, history etc. Worth was particularly interested in the book as object: the collection not only holds fine examples of sixteenth-century typography but is also considered to be the best collection of early modern book bindings in Ireland.” (Edward Worth Library, n.d., para. 2)

The Edward Worth Library and the medical manuscripts in the Royal Irish Academy reveal an ancient medical community dedicated to learning not just from their fellow peers in Ireland, but from physicians and scientists abroad. The medical community did not work in isolation, but actively sought out other sources to improve their own craft and medical knowledge.

Understanding pre-Christian Irish medicine is difficult due to the lack of information about the Druids and their customs. We see that even during ancient times, the Irish had a growing community of physicians who were important figures in the community. These medical communities grew and flourished, often establishing hereditary physician lines that worked for the lords and kings with excellent compensation for their services. Thankfully there are ancient medical treatises and texts that show how Irish physicians actively pursued international sources that were translated into Irish. If you’re interested in learning more about Irish medical history then read some of the sources listed in the ‘References’ section below! 

References:

Cunningham, Cantor, D., & Waddington, K. (2019). Early Modern Ireland and the World of Medicine: Practitioners, Collectors and Contexts. Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv18b5h6b

 Joyce, P.W. (1908). A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland, Treating of the Government, Military System, and Law; Religion, Learning, and Art; Trades, Industries, and Commerce; Manners, Customs, and Domestic Life, of the Ancient Irish People. Longmans, Green, & Co., 1908.

Woods, J.O. (1982). The history of medicine in Ireland. Ulster Medical Journal, 51(1), 35–45.

The Book of O’Lees [“Book of Hy-Brasil”]: Medical treatise. (2015, August 31). Royal Irish Academy. https://www.ria.ie/library/catalogues/special-collections/medieval-and-early-modern-manuscripts/book-olees-book-hy

The Edward Worth Library. (n.d.). Edward Worth Library. Retrieved March 15, 2022, from https://edwardworthlibrary.ie/

Subtracting insult from injury: The medical judgements of the Brehon Law. (2013, March 7). History Ireland. https://www.historyireland.com/subtracting-insult-from-injury-he-medical-judgements-of-the-brehon-law/#:~:text=The%20Brehon%20Law%20was%20the

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In an effort to remain accountable to communities who have been negatively impacted by past and present medical injustices, the staff at Himmelfarb Library is committed to the work of maintaining an anti-discriminatory practice. We will uplift and highlight diverse stories throughout the year, and not shy away from difficult conversations necessary for health sciences education. To help fulfill this mission, today's blog post explores the ethics of using the results of Nazi experiments during WWII. This post is a follow-up to our International Holocaust Remembrance Day post from January 26, 2022.

It is no secret that during the Holocaust, Nazi’s performed brutal and inhumane experiments on prisoners in concentration camps. These experiments were not only painful, they were often deadly. It was not uncommon for prisoners who had survived these experiments to be put to death afterwards “in order to facilitate postmortem examination” (USHMM, n.d.). However, questions surrounding the ethics of using the data and results of these experiments remain unsettled.

In 1984, Kristine Moe attempted to tackle some of these questions in her seminal article titled Should the Nazi Research Data be Cited? In this article, Moe poses some interesting questions that are still worth considering today: 

“If the experiments were conducted in an unethical manner, can the results be considered reliable? If the results are useful, can we afford to ignore them? Does the use of the data imply an endorsement of the methods by which they were gathered, and provide a justification for further unethical research?”

(Moe, 1984)

At the time this article was written, many scientists viewed Nazi data as both useful and “necessary to their work” (Moe, 1984). Take for example Eduard Pernkopf’s Atlas of Topographical and Applied Human Anatomy, sometimes referred to as the “atlas of the Shoah” (Mackinnon, 2020). Nerve surgeon Susan Mackinnon writes about the ethical dilemma she faced upon realizing that the “old but precise textbook” she’d relied on for so long was the product of “a Viennese anatomist who had dissected Hitler’s victims to produce his detailed illustrations'' (Mackinnon, 2020). The accuracy and detail of the images in this textbook were a direct result of the “cadaveric nature of the emaciated bodies, a product of torture and great suffering” (Mackinnon, 2020).

In the late 1980s, Robert Pozos, a physiologist and expert on hypothermia, and Arthur Caplan, a professor of medical ethics, held a conference at the University of Minnesota to discuss if and how to “use hypothermia information gathered at Dachau” (Caplan, 2021). During this conference, some attendees expressed their view that “using immorally acquired information” is justifiable if it is the only way to save a life (Caplan, 2021). Caplan argues that the use of “tainted information” adds legitimacy to this information, thus requiring the need for “good teaching about the horrific history of this information’s creation and careful deliberation about how it is referenced and cited in journals, books, exhibitions, clinical practice guidelines, award presentations, talks, and other sources” (Caplan, 2021).

Some researchers find the Nazi data to be weak, but still use the data to affirm more reliable experimental results. Still others are wholly opposed to the use of this data. Arnold Relman, a former editor of the New England Journal of Medicine, stated that the Nazi experiments were “such a gross violation of human standards that they are not to be trusted at all” (Moe, 1984). Allen Buchanan, a former philosopher at the University of Arizona who reviewed work on human subjects observed that “experiments that are ethically unsound are also scientifically unsound. Very rarely have I seen an experiment that is very good and valuable that had serious ethical problems” (Moe, 1984). This statement makes a strong case against the scientific soundness of Nazi experiments.

A 1990 article entitled Nazi Science: The Dachau Hypothermia Experiments exposed the lack of credibility and scientific vigor of the Nazi experiments. These experiments were found to have been “conducted without an orderly experimental protocol, with inadequate methods and an erratic execution,” and reports were “riddled with inconsistencies” (Berger, 1990). Additionally, there was evidence of data falsification and fabrication (Berger, 1990). Berger makes a strong case for abandoning future citations of Nazi data based on “scientific grounds” (Berger, 1990).

Others find the issue to be more nuanced. Caplan argued that “tainted” information could be used “if, at the same time, non-maleficence can be achieved and the physician acknowledges and discloses the immoral origins of the work, in a manner that honors the victims but not its perpetrators” (Mackinnon, 2020). Mackinnon presented a four-step framework to consider when use of the Pernkopf Atlas is deemed to be potentially helpful. This framework includes taking a timeout to reassess planning, consult a colleague for help, and consult other educational resources or textbooks. As a last resort, the atlas can be consulted, but only if it is done with “disclosure, respect, gratitude, and solemnity” (Mackinnon, 2020). 

The dialog around this issue is an important one. The topic has experienced a resurgence in recent years and discussion of the topic has been renewed. Mackinnon eloquently states that “as physicians and educators, we have an enduring moral duty to recount history, share knowledge with generations that follow, and protect against new versions of the atrocities of the past” (Mackinnon, 2020). 

References:

Berger, R. L. (1990). Nazi science: The Dachau hypothermia experiments. New England Journal of Medicine, 322(20), 1435-1440. Retrieved from https://proxygw.wrlc.org/login?url=https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199005173222006

Caplan. (2021). How Should We Regard Information Gathered in Nazi Experiments? AMA Journal of Ethics, 23(1), E55–E58. https://doi.org/10.1001/amajethics.2021.55 Retrieved from https://proxygw.wrlc.org/login?url=https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/how-should-we-regard-information-gathered-nazi-experiments/2021-01

Mackinnon S. (2020). When medical information comes from Nazi atrocities. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 368, l7075. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l7075 Retrieved from https://proxygw.wrlc.org/login?url=https://www.bmj.com/content/368/bmj.l7075

Moe, K. (1984). Should the Nazi Research Data Be Cited? The Hastings Center Report, 14(6), 5–7. https://doi.org/10.2307/3561733 Retrieved from https://proxygw.wrlc.org/login?url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3561733

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. (n.d.) United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Website. https://www.ushmm.org/

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The United Nations first celebrated International Women’s Day on March 8, 1975 and two years later, the international organization designated March 8 as an annual day of observation for International Women’s Day. This awareness day is celebrated in a variety of ways depending on the country. Many people use the day to honor the successes of women and various gender equality movements, while also raising awareness on the issues that continue to impact women such as pay inequality and the disproportionate impact of climate change on women and children. 

Though the UN didn’t designate March 8 as International Women’s Day until 1977, the day originated in the early 1900s during labor rights protests and the suffrage movement. “The impetus for establishing an International Women’s Day can be traced back to New York City in February 1908, when thousands of women who were garment workers went on strike and marched through the city to protest against their working conditions.” (Haynes, 2018). To honor the anniversary of these labor strikes, the first National Women’s Day was celebrated in the United States on February 28, 1909. The celebration was led by Clara Zetkin, a German organizer and socialist, who was instrumental in spreading the awareness day in Europe. Russia celebrated its first International Women’s Day in 1913, but in 1917, after suffering from poor economic and social conditions, many used the day to protest and express their outrage over the mistreatment they faced. Their strikes and protests led to Russian women gaining the right to vote that same year. Suffragists in other nations learned from the experience of the women in Russia and used similar tactics to eventually gain the ability to vote. The collaboration and solidarity of women across the world continued throughout the 1900s and their activism paved the way for International Women’s Day to become a globally recognized holiday. 

The International Women’s Day website offers resources and events to help you learn more about the day and connect with others who are invested in advocating for women’s equality. On March 8 at 2:00 pm, the National Cancer Institute will hold an event titled ‘Breaking Bias: Women in Healthcare and Science Leadership.’  On March 11 the ‘Reimagined in America: Advance Gender Equity’ event will discuss building gender equity policies and gender inclusive communities in the United States. The United Nations will also hold a virtual event on March 8 from 10:00 am- 11:30 am in celebration of International Women’s Day. The event will focus on climate change and its impact on women and children and will feature appearances from prominent international leaders and figures such as Jane Goodall and UN Leaders. Click here to register for this UN event! If you're interested in attending a local event, GWU's American Medical Women's Association (AMWA) will be holding a potluck to celebrate International Women's Day on March 8, 2022 from 12:00 pm- 1:00 pm in the Ross Hall Courtyard. Dean Bass will be a guest speaker! If you'd like to sign up to bring a dish to the potluck, use this Google Sheet.

There are many ways to observe International Women’s Day. It’s a time to reflect on the significant achievements of women around the world and the perfect time to commit to and work towards a more gender inclusive world. We hope you’ll learn more about the history of International Women’s Day or attend one of the many events that honor this holiday!

Work Cited:

Haynes, Suyin. (2018, March 8). The Radical Reason Why March 8 Is International Women’s Day. TIME Magazine. https://time.com/5187268/international-womens-day-history/

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Black and white photo of the Lincoln Theater and other buildings on U Street.
(Photo from Lincoln Theater Website)

African-Americans have always been a significant portion of Washington D.C.’s population. Since the cultivation of the land and eventual creation of the capital city, African-Americans, both enslaved and free, steadily flowed into the city and planted roots in certain neighborhoods such as U Street, Georgetown and Barry’s Farm. They formed communities that often bridged class divisions to support each other through adversity and advocated for the expansion of their rights, from equitable access to the voting booth to safe and affordable housing, issues that are still relevant today. Scattered throughout the city are monuments and memorials dedicated to some of the figures, social-political movements and institutions that were pivotal in supporting the African-American community. As this year’s Black History Month comes to a close, we’d like to highlight some of the people, locations, landmark court cases and other historical moments that created the foundation that many Black Washingtonians stand on today.

Benjamin Banneker (1731-1806)- A native Marylander, Benjamin Banneker was a mathematician and amateur astronomer who helped survey the land and establish boundaries for the newly commissioned capital of the United States. Banneker received little formal education and taught himself many of the skills he frequently used. When Andrew Ellicott, a cousin of Banneker’s neighbor George Ellicott, was tapped to survey the land that eventually became Washington D.C., Andrew brought along Banneker to assist with the project. In the 1600s and 1700s the land around the future capital was primarily farm land, specifically tobacco plantations that heavily relied on slave labor. When the survey team arrived, they had to navigate a landscape that looked vastly different from the city of our time. Because of his age and the demands of the physical labor that the project required “Banneker…concentrated on the intellectual tasks of calibrating instruments, making mathematical projections, and calculating distances accurately.” (Asch & Musgrove, 2017, p. 27) Banneker also advocated for emancipation for enslaved Africans. In a letter to Thomas Jefferson, he expressed his desire to see enslaved people freed and argued that African-Americans could contribute to society if they were given the opportunities to govern themselves. Benjamin Banneker died in 1806 in Maryland and was buried in his family’s burial grounds. Overlooking L’Enfant Plaza in the southwest sector of D.C. is a park dedicated to Benjamin Banneker. This park is one of many sites in the country that pays tribute to Banneker’s work and legacy. 

Queen v. Hepburn (1813)- Slavery was a dominant function of Washington D.C’s society, much like other parts of the country. While enslaved people in Washington experienced some small forms of freedom and independence, unlike those who labored on Southern plantations, they still sought ways to experience full freedom. Freed African-Americans would often ‘purchase’ their enslaved relatives. But some enslaved individuals used the courts to gain their freedom. Mina Queen, an enslaved woman in Maryland, pursued this route in the 1810s when she argued for her freedom by insisting that her great-grandmother was a free woman and this freedom passed down to Mina. She hired Francis Scott Key to represent her and her case circulated through the legal system before eventually reaching the Supreme Court. Unfortunately the Supreme Court ruled against Mina and her eventual fate is unknown. Chief Justice John Marshall “dismissed the use of hearsay testimony to establish one’s legal status, ruling that in legal terms enslaved people were considered property. If the Court allowed such hearsay evidence, Marshall argued ‘no man could feel safe in any property.’” (Asch & Musgrove, 2017, pp.42-43) While the Queen v. Hepburn case was a setback for enslaved people seeking their freedom, it also points to the ways in which they resisted the institution of slavery. This decision did not deter enslaved people from using the courts to gain their freedom and shows the many avenues African-Americans pursued before the Emancipation Proclamation.

Barry Farms (established. 1867)- Located in Southeast Washington, Barry Farms was created by the Freedmen’s Bureau after the end of the Civil War. While the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation freed enslaved people in the South, enslaved Washingtonians were actually freed a year earlier in 1862 with the passage of “An Act for the Release of Certain Persons Held to Service or Labor in the District of Columbia” that President Lincoln signed into law on April 16, 1862. (This date is remembered as Emancipation Day in D.C.) African-Americans flocked to the capital, putting further strain on the already limited housing market. The Freedmen’s Bureau was tasked with assisting the freed men and women adjust to their new lives. To help resettle African-Americans, the bureau purchased 375 acres of land, divided the land into one-acre plots and sold them for $125-$300 per acre. The purchase also included lumber to construct homes and residents had two years to pay off the costs. Over the years, Barry Farms developed into a thriving community which included hundreds of homesteads, a church, a school and other community institutions. The Barry Farms community exists today, though many residents are actively working to keep the neighborhood listed as an affordable housing option. Barry Farms did not completely end the housing crisis many Washingtonians experienced, but with time it developed into a well-established neighborhood for African-Americans.

Photo of books on a shelf
(Photo by Element5 Digital from Pexels)

African-American Education in the District- Black Washingtonians saw access to education as a key feature that would benefit everyone. As more and more African-Americans migrated to the capital, individuals and charitable organizations worked to build public and private schools to teach reading, arithmetic and other subjects. Howard University, located near the popular U Street Corridor, was founded in 1867 and named after the Union general Oliver O. Howard. It was originally an integrated university, but primarily focused on educating black students. The Preparatory School for Colored Youth (later known as M Street High School and eventually Dunbar High School) was one of the first public high schools for African-American students. The high school was a well-respected and beloved institution for Black Washingtonians and it eventually became one of the top high schools in the country. Many of the schools wrestled with segregation and intense scrutiny from school board members or congressional leaders, but this didn’t dissuade individuals from seeking to educate themselves. Many African-Americans saw a formal education as their ticket to a better life.

Black and white photo of Mary Church Terrell
(Photo from National Women's History Museum website)

Mary Church Terrell (1863-1954)- Born in Tennessee, Mary Church Terrell was an educator, activist and one of the first Black women to earn a college degree. She was an influential figure in the community. She taught Latin at M Street High School and was eventually appointed to the Board of Education, making her the first Black woman to ever sit on a school board in the country. In 1896, she helped found the National Association of Colored Women. Terrell believed in “uplifting” the Black community and worked tirelessly with other organizations to fight against racial discrimination. When African-American women secured the right to vote with the passage of the 19th amendment, Terrell focused on other forms of discrimination such as inequitable access to education and racial discrimination by businesses. Her home, located in the LeDroit Park neighborhood, is considered a National Historic Landmark and in 2020 she was inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame.

“Black Broadway”/ U Street Corridor- With it’s close proximity to Howard University, the blocks of U Street are filled with restaurants, bars and clubs where many Washingtonians unwind after the work week. But from the early to mid 1900s, U Street was a hub of entertainment and commerce for African-Americans who were denied access to many theaters, businesses and other venues because of Jim Crow laws. Before the Harlem Renaissance, U Street was filled with nightclubs, theaters and restaurants that catered to middle-class and affluent African-Americans and was seen as a place of cultural significance. U Street “boasted more than three hundred black-owned businesses and organizations, including the Whitelaw Hotel and the Industrial Savings Bank, both established by a remarkable, unschooled black entrepreneur named John Whitelaw Lewis.” (Asch & Musgrove, 2017, p. 239) Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington, one of the most well-known composers and jazz musicians, grew up near the historic U Street Corridor and performed some of his earliest shows in the neighborhood’s theaters. Though the area experienced hardships in the 1960s to the 1990s, it has once again become a popular section of the District and is remembered for providing entertainment to African-Americans after the Great Depression.

It is difficult capturing every historical event that holds meaning to the African-American community in Washington D.C. While the capital was not immune to the racial tensions and divisions that impacted the rest of the country, many African-Americans believed Washington D.C. was a haven and people moved to the city in search of a better life. There are ongoing changes to the capital’s population, but it’s important to remember the history and experiences of the individuals and organizations that helped shape Washington D.C.

Work Cited:

  Asch, & Musgrove, G. D. (2017). Chocolate City : a history of race and democracy in the nation’s capital. The University of North Carolina Press.

McQuirter, M. A. (n.d.) A Brief History of African Americans in Washington, DC. Cultural Tourism DC. https://www.culturaltourismdc.org/portal/a-brief-history-of-african-americans-in-washington-dc

Biography.com Editors. (2014, April 2) Benjamin Banneker Biography. The Biography.com website. https://www.biography.com/scientist/benjamin-banneker

Black Broadway on U: A Transmedia Project. (n.d.) Blackbroadway on U. https://blackbroadwayonu.com/

Further Readings:

 Black Georgetown Remembered: A History of Its Black Community from the Founding of “The Town of George” in 1751 to the Present Day by Kathleen Menzie Lesko, Valerie Babb & Carroll R. Gibbs

Leading the Race: The Transformation of the Black elite in the nation’s capital, 1880-1920 by Jacqueline M. Moore (available through a CLS request)

The Black History of the White House by Clarence Lusane (available through a CSL request)

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In December of 2014, 100 UCSF medical students held a demonstration to raise awareness and spur action on racial disparities in healthcare, police violence, and structural racism. The protest came in the wake of decisions by grand juries to not indict police officers responsible for the deaths of Michael Brown and Eric Garner. The UCSF event was the first White Coats for Black Lives Die-In.  Medical students wore their white coats and layed on the ground in protest on the UCSF campus.

The UCSF demonstration inspired similar protests at more than 80 colleges and universities nationwide and became the #WhiteCoats4BlackLives movement. 74 White Coats for Black Lives (WC4BL) chapters are now active in health sciences academic institutions across the country with the following mission:

To dismantle racism and accompanying systems of oppression in health, while simultaneously cultivating means for collective liberation that center the needs, priorities, and self-determination of Black people and other people of color, particularly those most marginalized in our communities.

The Social Justice Interest Group at GW SMHS submitted responses to the 2019 WC4BL Racial Justice Report Card.  The report card included fourteen metrics that evaluate institutions’ curriculum and climate, student and faculty diversity, policing, racial integration of clinical care sites, treatment of workers, and research protocols. One of the metrics where GWSMHS fell short concerned acknowledgement of contributions of BIPOC alumni and faculty. Portraits in Himmelfarb Library and imagery in Ross Hall were cited as problematic. Since then some portraits have been removed from Himmelfarb Library and a Ross Hall Images working group was formed to improve representation in the lobby area and other public spaces. GW overall scored a B- on the report card.

In the summer of 2020 the official GW WC4BL chapter formed. Among several marches, rallies, and stand-ins throughout the season, the local WC4BL chapters organized a gathering of hundreds of health care providers in support of the Black Lives Matter protests in Washington, DC and marched in the vicinity of the White House on June 6, 2020.

That year the GW chapter assembled a document outlining their demands to improve racial equity, diversity, and inclusion at the school. These included a commitment to admitting incoming classes with an over-representation of Black, Latinx and Native American students to begin correcting current shortages, an increase in the number of BIPOC faculty and staff, and specific changes to the MD curriculum, among them not teaching race itself as a disease risk factor.

The GW WC4BL chapter now focuses on three areas: admissions, curriculum, and outreach to the community. Progress is being made on all fronts through work with SMHS leadership, the Office of Diversity and Inclusion, and other activist groups on campus.

^From an event in Fall 2021 regarding long-term care of renal transplant patients, with the representatives from GW Ron & Joy Paul Kidney Center. Pictured (Right to Left) are Dr. Joseph Keith Melancon, Chief Transplant Surgeon at GWUH, and Kegan Dasher, current MS3 and E-board member for GW WC4BL. 

The cost of GW has been a barrier to diversity in admissions. The group is meeting with administrative bodies at GW to find out more about what is being done to admit and matriculate more underrepresented minorities (URM) in medicine and determine how more scholarships can be made available specifically for these groups of students. Additionally, the group is working to make sure that antiracism work is asked about and considered appropriately in the admissions process including in secondary applications and the interview stage.

To improve the curriculum, there are now surveys for students to evaluate and report on how they feel race is used or misused in both lectures and in clinical settings. This information is shared with faculty and administration to raise awareness and identify ways to eliminate bias. Representatives from WC4BL have met with POM and PPS directors to better integrate social determinants of health into the curriculum, including at the basic sciences level.

On the outreach front, WC4BL organized students to provide screening services regarding the precedents to kidney disease (namely hypertension and diabetes) at health fairs in the DC area, particularly in Wards 7 and 8, in cooperation with the GWU Ron & Joy Paul Kidney Center. The goal is to raise awareness of these predisposing conditions, refer community members to follow-up services, and also instill and restore trust in health professionals in those predominantly Black and Brown communities.

Current contacts for the GW WC4BL chapter are E-board members Tori Greaves, Nakita Mortimer, Kegan Dasher, and Comi Ganji.  There are also elected liaisons representing each of the MD classes who contribute significantly to the functioning of the group. You can reach the organization through the GW WC4BL email and their Facebook page. They are always open to information about new opportunities that the organization could become involved with as well as constructive suggestions about ways to create a more antiracist culture at GW.

Please join the GW WC4BL Facebook group for updates and events!

Himmelfarb Library would like to acknowledge and thank Kegan Dasher and the GW WC4BL board for their contributions to this article.

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Promo image for ARC book club.

Are you interested in reading more about race in America and engaging with others in our community with similar interests? The GW SMHS Office of Diversity and Inclusion, the Anti-Racism Coalition (ARC), and the Center for Faculty Excellence are continuing their Anti-Racism Book Club this spring. The book selection for Spring 2022 is Why Are All The Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? By Beverly Daniel Tatum. 

This book explores how the experience of African Americans is still very different from that of whites, and provides a framework for understanding how the dynamics of dominant groups and non-dominant groups manifest themselves around the issue of race.  An electronic copy of this book is accessible for free through Himmelfarb Library. 

The first of this three session discussion will take place on Tuesday, February 22nd at 12:00pm and Wednesday, February 23rd at 5:00pm (eastern standard time). Sessions are offered at Noon and 5pm for every session in order to accommodate a variety of schedules. Register for the sessions that fit within your schedule. All sessions will be held virtually via Zoom. For more information about these events, contact Jalina Booker at JTBooker@gwu.edu.

If you are interested in additional book recommendations to celebrate Black History Month, we have a recent blog post with some suggestions! 

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African-American authors have contributed to the body of American literature for centuries. From memoir to poetry and contemporary literature, African-American writers captured the history of the time from the Black perspective, commented on the current political and social conflicts and created fictional narratives that readers could escape to when the world was too daunting. The following list of recommendations scratches the surface of novels, memoirs, non-fiction books and other works penned by African-American authors:

  1. The Hate U Give by Angie Thomas: Debuting at number one on the New York Times bestsellers list, where it remained for fifty weeks, The Hate U Give is Angie Thomas’ debut young adult novel that deals with the Black Lives Matter movement. The novel follows Starr who witnesses the death of her friend, Khalil, during a traffic stop. For the rest of the story, Starr mourns Khalil’s death while building the courage to use her voice for good as the fragile social ties in her school and community shatter after the incident. 
  2. Hitting a Straight Lick with a Crooked Stick: Stories from the Harlem Renaissance by Zora Neale Hurston: A writer, anthropologist and folklorist, Hurston is most often remembered for her novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God published in 1937. In recent years there has been a renewed interest in Hurston’s work and some of her writing has been published posthumously, including this story collection published in 2020. This is a perfect collection for anyone interested in the Harlem Renaissance and the artists who still influence their respective creative fields to this day. 
  3. Just As I Am: A Memoir by Cicely Tyson: Actress, activist, and national icon, Cicely Tyson’s career lasted for seven decades and included films such as The Trip to Bountiful , Sounder, The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman and tv shows How to Get Away With Murder, Roots and King. Her 2021 memoir, published just two days before her death, is a stunning recollection of her childhood, her time as a stage and screen actress and the relationships that shaped her identity. Cicely Tyson’s memoir not only shares the life and legacy of a prolific actress, but also offers advice on how to live a meaningful life. 
  4. All Boys Aren’t Blue: A Memoir-Manifesto by George M. Johnson: According to the author, this collection of personal essays was inspired by Toni Morrison’s quote “If there’s a book you want to read, but it hasn’t been written yet, then you must write it.” Petra Mayer from NPR says about the book “Johnson draws readers into his own experiences with clear, confiding essays–from childhood encounters with bullies to sexual experiences good and bad, to finding unexpected brotherhood in a college fraternity, all of it grounded in the love and support of his family.” If you’re interested in reading this title, it will soon be available for checkout from Himmelfarb Library. 
  5. Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America edited by Ibram X. Kendi and Keisha N. Blain: This history of Black America starts in 1619 and ends in the present day. This historical collection includes essays, poems, short stories and other texts from different writers who all reflect on the formation of the African-American community and how their presence influenced American society. This title gives a different perspective of American history and introduces readers to a number of Black historians, essayists and authors. 
  6. Black Man in a White Coat by Damon Tweedy: This memoir provides insight into how race impacts African-Americans’ access to quality healthcare in America. “In this powerful, moving, and deeply empathetic book, Tweedy explores the challenges confronting black doctors, and the disproportionate health burdens faced by black patients, ultimately seeking a way forward to better treatment and more compassionate care.” (Macmillian.com) While the subject matter may be difficult to read, it sparks a necessary conversation about how race and other factors profoundly impact people’s connection to our healthcare system. 
  7. Parable of the Sower by Octavia E. Butler:  Octavia E. Butler was a science-fiction and fantasy author whose novels and short stories influenced many aspiring writers, particularly African-American speculative fiction authors. Parable of the Sower is the first novel in a planned series that unfortunately remains unfinished. The novel is set in the 2020s and deals with climate change, social inequality and political unrest. Parable of the Sower is an excellent novel for readers who want to begin to explore Butler’s body of work. 
  8. Brown Girl Dreaming by Jacqueline Woodson: Winner of the 2014 National Book Award for Young People’s Literature, Brown Girl Dreaming is a blend of poetry and memoir as it follows Woodson’s childhood years in rural South Carolina and New York. Speaking to NPR after the book’s publication, Loriene Roy the former head of the American Library Association, said “Once you dip into the pages you realize it’s a story for more than the brown girls…It’s for people who want to celebrate with them or anyone who wants to find that voice for themselves.” 

Many of these titles are available for checkout through Himmelfarb’s Consortium Loan Service. If you need assistance requesting a title through the Consortium Loan Service, please watch this tutorial. 

We hope this list will inspire you to search for other African-American writers and works that impacted both the African-American community and the wider American literary landscape. If you have a favorite author or book written by a Black author, share them with others in the comments.

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Image of an entry gate to Auschwitz.
Photo from https://www.pxfuel.com/en/free-photo-qgmdx

In an effort to remain accountable to communities who have been negatively impacted by past and present medical injustices, the staff at Himmelfarb Library is committed to the work of maintaining an anti-discriminatory practice. We will uplift and highlight diverse stories throughout the year, and not shy away from difficult conversations necessary for health sciences education. To help fulfill this mission, today's blog post honors International Holocaust Remembrance Day.

January 27th is International Holocaust Remembrance Day. This day is meant to serve as a time to honor and commemorate the victims of the Nazi regime, and to promote education about the Holocaust. On January 27, 1945, Auschwitz was liberated by the Soviet army. Auschwitz, located in German-occupied Poland, was the largest of the the Nazi concentration camps and the place where 1.1 million people lost their lives during the Holocaust (USHMM, n.d.).

Medical Experiments in the Holocaust

Medicine played a role in the dark history of Auschwitz. SS physicians conducted a variety of medical experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz. These experiments were conducted without the consent of the prisoners and were often painful, and even deadly. The results from these experiments are overwhelmingly rejected today due to “inhumane conditions, lack of consent, and questionable research standards” (USHMM, n.d.). Nazi experiments focused on three main areas of interest: survival of military personnel, drug and treatment testing, and advancement of Nazi racial ideological goals. 

Experiments aimed to improve the survival of military personnel included “high-altitude experiments to determine the maximum altitude from which crews of damaged aircraft could parachute safely,” “freezing experiments'' to develop hypothermia treatments, and testing ways of “making seawater drinkable” (USHMM, n,d). Drug and treatment experiments used prisoners to test immunization and antibodies intended to prevent and treat contagious diseases “including malaria, typhus, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, yellow fever and infectious hepatitis” (USHMM, n.d.). Bone grafting experiments left prisoners disfigured. Prisoners were exposed to phosgene and mustard gas so antidotes could be tested. Experiments aimed at advancing Nazi racial and ideological goals were intented to establish “Jewish racial inferiority” (USHMM, n.d.). These experiments were often deadly for prisoners. Even when a prisoner survived the experiment, they were often put to death afterwards “in order to facilitate post-mortem examination” (USHMM, n.d.). 

Josef Mengele: The Angel of Death

The most well known Nazi doctor, who conducted many of these horrendous experiements at Auschwitz, was Josef Mengele. After joining the Nazi Party in 1937, Mangele received his medical degree and joined the SS a year later, in 1938. Mengele arrived at Auschwitz in May of 1943, and in November of that same year became the Chief Camp Physician of Auschwitz II (Birkenau) (USHMM, n.d.). 

Image of Nazi officers. Left to right: Richard Baer, Josef Mengele, and Rudolf Hoss in Auschwitz.
From left to right: Richard Baer, Josef Mengele, and Rudolf Hoss in Auschwitz, 1944. Image from the Jewish Virtual Library: https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/josef-mengele.

Auschwitz medical staff were required to be present when new prisoners arrived to the camp as part of their “rounds,” during which time they made “selections” of prisoners to determine who would be put to work doing hard labor, and who would be sent directly to the gas chambers (USHMM, n.d.). Because he often spent his “off-duty” time at the ramp on the lookout for twins, his research area of interest, Mengele is a “pervasive image” among survivor accounts of the ramp (USHMM, n.d.). He is known as the “Angel of Death” due to “his coldly cruel demeanor” while on selection duty on the ramp (USHMM, n.d.). 

In the following video, Eva Kor, a twin who experienced the horrors of Nazi experimentation first hand, recounts her experience with Mengele:

Jewish medical professionals who were prisoners at Auschwitz were forced to carry out the details of many of the experiments that happened there. Dr. Miklos Nyiszli, a prisoner-physician who “assisted Mengele under duress,” later documented his experience in his book Auschwitz: A Doctor’s Eyewitness Account.  

While Mengele’s crimes were well documented, he evaded punishment for these crimes by moving from Argentina to Paraguay to Brazil, where he died in 1979. To learn more about Mengele, read Halioua and Marmor’s 2020 article The eyes of the angel of death: Ophthalmic experiments of Josef Mengele.

Jewish Physicians and the Holocaust:

While the actions of Nazi doctors during the Holocaust were overwhelmingly horrifying and atrocious, there were doctors during this time who made the choice to practice medicine in a way that offered hope and was intended to save lives whenever possible. In the 2014 book Jewish Medical Resistance in the Holocaust, Dr. Michael Grodin highlights the “mostly unknown moral and physical struggles faced by physicians trying to provide care and comfort amid the depredation of war” (Saunders, 2014). As documented by primary and secondary source materials in this book, Jewish physicians “fought to promote public health in ghettos and concentration camps as a way of slowing the march toward extermination” (Saunders, 2014). To hear more about this book and Jewish doctors during the Holocaust, take a look at the short video below:

Picture of Gisella Perl as a young medical student.
Perl as a young medical student (Gross 2020)

One Jewish physician who was a prisoner at Auschwitz and was forced to work with Dr. Mengele was Dr. Gisella Perl, pictured on the left as a young medical student. Dr. Perl was a gynecologist who lived in Hungary with her husband, Ephraim Krauss, a surgeon, and their two children. In March of 1944, Perl and her family were sent to Sighet Ghetto. By March of 1945, she had been moved to Auschwitz. Perl, alongside four other doctors and five nurses, were tasked with establishing a hospital in the camp. 

In addition to gynecology, Perl found herself “trying to heal all of the forms of abuse inflicted on her fellow prisoners” including caring for head wounds, extracting infected teeth, taping broken ribs, and cleaning painful lacerations (Gross, 2020). Having had her medical bag ripped away by a German doctor, she had no equipment with which to perform these duties aside from “paper for bandaging and a small knife she sharpened on a stone” (Gross, 2020). 

Even in the midst of such dire circumstances, Perl made every effort to use her position as a doctor in the camp for good and to save as many lives as she could. When asked to provide blood samples for prisoners who she knew had contagious diseases, she sent vials of her own blood instead so the patients would not be killed because of their disease (Gross, 2020). “On days she knew the SS would clear out the hospital and send the sick to the gas chambers,” she would send some patients “back to their barracks so they would be spared” (Gross, 2020). One Auschwitz survivor called Perl “the doctor of the Jews” (Gross, 2020).

Mengele, having learned that Perl was a gynecologist, ordered her to report every pregnant woman directly to him, telling her that “they would be sent to a special camp, where they would receive extra bread rations and even milk” (Gross, 2020). However, Perl soon learned the truth when she witnessed pregnant women being beaten, attacked by dogs, and thrown into the crematorium alive (Gross, 2020). Perl decided that “it was up to me to save the life of the mothers, if there was no other way, than by destroying the life of their unborn children” (Gross, 2020). When Perl knew that a woman was pregnant, she did her best to hide the pregnancy whenever possible, and she ended the pregnancy when it could no longer be hidden (Gross, 2020). She spent her days working for Mengele, and her nights performing abortions in an effort to save the lives of the mothers.

Perl survived the Holocaust. She went on to work in labor and delivery at Mount Sinai Hospital in Manhattan before opening her own practice “dedicated to helping women with infertility” (Gross, 2020). In 1978, she learned that her daughter had also survived and was living in Israel. She moved to Israel to live with her daughter and grandson and volunteered her services at gynecology clinics delivering babies until her death in 1988 (Gross, 2020). 

Nuremberg Code

Following the Holocaust, medical professionals were tried for war crimes and crimes against humanity during the “doctors trial” portion of the Nuremberg Military Tribunal case of United States v. Karl Brandt et al. During the trial, issues of medical ethics brought up by the medical experiments performed on prisoners took center stage. What is now known as the “Nuremberg Code” was established from this trial. The Nuremberg Code established 10 key ethical principles to be followed for all medical experimentation including: voluntary patient consent, avoidance of unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury, the degree of risk should never exceed the importance of the problem solved by the experiment, human subjects should be able to end the experiment when physical or mental continuation seems impossible, and that scientist should be prepared to end the experiment at any stage (Shuster, 1997). The Nuremberg Code is widely considered to be the “most important document in the history of the ethics of medical research” and continues to guide the “principles that ensure the rights of subjects in medical research” to this day (Shuster, 1997).

Additional Resources:

To learn more about medical care and Jewish physician experiences during the Holocaust, explore the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum’s Medical Care, Nazism, and the Holocaust Collection. This collection includes diary entries, oral histories and interviews, photographs, official letters and manuscripts. 

References:

Boston University. (2012, February 18). A history of Jewish doctors during the Holocaust. Boston University YouTube Channel. https://youtu.be/LI6qcshy-Kc

Gross, R.E. (2020). Dr. Gisella Perl: The Auschwitz doctor who saved lives. BBC Future. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200526-dr-gisella-perl-the-auschwitz-doctor-who-saved-lives

Saunders, M. (2014). New book details scope of Jewish medical resistance during the Holocaust. Boston University School of Public Health. https://www.bu.edu/sph/news/articles/2014/new-book-by-michael-grodin-details-scope-of-jewish-medical-resistance-during-the-holocaust/

Shuster E. (1997). Fifty years later: the significance of the Nuremberg Code. The New England journal of medicine, 337(20), 1436–1440. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199711133372006 Retrieved from https://proxygw.wrlc.org/login?url=https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejm199711133372006

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. (n.d.) United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Website. https://www.ushmm.org/

USC Shoah Foundation. (2015, May 26). Eva Kor on her experience with Josef Mengele. USC Shoah Foundation YouTube Channel. https://youtu.be/bB1_UCFd7xs

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January 17th is regarded as both a day of remembrance and also a day that we can take the time out of our busy lives to pay it forward and to educate ourselves on just what it means to be a member of our community. As Dr. King Jr. once said: “"Every man must decide whether he will walk in the light of creative altruism or in the darkness of destructive selfishness." Taking that quote into consideration, it is easy to ask ourselves: “What can we do for each other?” or “How can I encourage my community to be more united?” 

GW’s Anti-Racism Coalition (ARC) will be hosting a three part web session called: "Advancing the Dream: We Cannot Walk Alone." What better way to promote equality than to educate yourself and your friends on it? Register for this 3 part session that takes place on January 18th, 26th, and the 27th. 

The event will feature Keynote speakers: Dr. Michelle Morse (she/her), Deputy Commissioner for the Center for Health Equity and Community Wellness & Chief Medical Officer at the NYC Department of Health & Mental Hygiene and George M. Johnson (They/Them), Author of "All Boys Aren't Blue" and "We Are Not Broken"

If you are unable to attend, there are other events throughout DC that you can do to help your community!

MLK Holiday DC Hopeful Healing Health and Wellness Fair

When: Monday, January 17th at 10:00am

The Health and Wellness fair focuses on meeting the needs of mental health, giving hope, and equipping the community with resources and services needed. Registration, social distancing & Masks are required. 

Clean Waterways Cleanup: MLK Day of Service 2022

When: Monday, January 17th at 10:00am - 1:00pm

Register online to join members of the community to clean up the Waterways. All ages are welcome to attend, supplies will be provided. Rain or shine! 

Where can I find out more?: 

Even if you are unable to attend or participate in local community events on MLK day, we encourage all to remember Dr. Martin Luther King Jr’s message, and how important it is that we strive to promote equality in our own communities, even in the midst of a Pandemic. Additionally, we encourage you to read about KING WEEK at GW!

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