Education – Page 2 – Refugee Educational Advancement Lab (REAL)

November 14, 2022November 14, 2022

Early Childhood Education for Refugees in the United States

By: Isabelle Hoagland

Peer-reviewed by REAL members

Introduction

Early Childhood Education (ECE) is an essential component of a child’s development during critical years of its life, yet it is often inaccessible for refugee families in the United States Despite ample evidence in favor of creating widespread access to high-quality ECE, the U.S. does not have universal childcare or ECE programs. The federal Head Start program does help provide access to ECE for underserved populations, yet many barriers often prevent refugee families from accessing the Head Start program. In this blog post, I will 1) establish the importance of ECE, 2) reflect on my interview with the executive director of the Community Action Agency of Somerville, MA, David Gibbs, who oversees the city’s Head Start program; and 3) provide recommendations to help ensure access to ECE for refugees in the U.S.

Early Childhood Development

Early Childhood Development (ECD) encompasses a child’s physical, cognitive, linguistic, and social emotional development from a prenatal stage through primary school (UNICEF, 2017). Ninety percent of brain development occurs before the age of five, according to the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (2010), providing a small window of opportunity in a child’s early years of life to maximize the scope of the brain’s cognitive and language abilities, social skills, and socioemotional development (UNICEF, 2017). Early education is an essential component of healthy child development (Nurturing Care, 2020).

Research on high-quality ECE establishes both short- and long-term advantages (Morland et al., 2016; Karoly et al., 2005). Children who have participated in ECE are less likely to be unemployed or incarcerated later in life, are more likely to graduate from high school, and on average earn higher salaries than those who do not (Meloy et al., 2019). Longitudinal research of preschool programs has found up to $17 returned in social benefits for every dollar invested (Meloy et al., 2019). Furthermore, according to Meloy et al. (2019), high-quality ECE helps close gaps in educational and life outcomes between lower- and upper-income families. ECE has been shown to increase children’s socioemotional skills and school readiness (Arapa et al., 2021; Barnett, 1992), and provide a healing environment for those who have been exposed to trauma (The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2005/2014). For children who have experienced trauma or adverse childhood experiences, ECE programs have the potential to offer a nurturing and healing environment.

Head Start Programs

The U.S. does not have universal childcare or ECE programs. Instead, it is the responsibility of individual states and localities to decide what kind of programs to provide, if any (Park, 2018). Some states offer free preschool and ECE for low-income families, but these provisions are ad hoc. However, in 1964, President Johnson created the federally-funded Head Start program with the goal of providing a comprehensive ECD program that would serve low-income and underprivileged communities (Department of Health and Human Services, 2021). Refugees in the U.S. are eligible to enroll in these programs; however, many barriers exist to accessing them. A lack of qualified, bilingual, and culturally competent preschool teachers, ECE staff, and providers make the programs largely inaccessible to refugee families (Park, 2018). Research shows that families with limited proficiency in English or formal education are less likely to enroll their children in ECEC programs due to enrollment barriers (Morland et al., 2016). Beyond Head Start programs, little to no infrastructure exists in the U.S. for refugee children ECE (Park, 2018). This speaks to the broader issue of the lack of universal ECE programs in the country.

I had the chance to speak with David Gibbs, who oversees the Head Start program in Sommerville, MA. In our conversation, Gibbs explained to me that Head Start is a center-based preschool program that also provides holistic wraparound services for the children and their families. Enrollment in Head Start is typically competitive due to high demand and few slots available. To be eligible for Head Start, a family’s income must not exceed 125 percent of the federal poverty line. However, a child may be otherwise qualified by virtue of 1) having a learning disability, 2) being involved with local child abuse or neglect agency, 3) if they are currently homeless, or 4) if they are a refugee. All children enrolled in a Head Start program receive health supervision, vaccinations, regular checkups, access to mental health and disability specialists, and nutrition specialists. Additionally, any family member may receive referrals to mental and primary health services.

An opportunity exists for the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) to establish a collaboration with the Office of Head Start (OHS). This collaboration could work to ensure that refugee families are aware of local ECE programs available to them and could aid in navigating the enrollment process, addressing one of the key barriers to access that refugee families face. There is currently very little communication between refugee services, which are led by the government, and ECE services, which are run by individual states and localities (Park, 2018). According to Morland et al. (2016), “Head Start is well positioned to work with resettlement programs to help ease the transition of refugee families to their new communities, provide centralized access to key comprehensive services, and improve overall school readiness for children of refugee families” (p. 2). However, such collaboration does not exist in most places in the country, likely due to a silo effect within organizations.

Recommendations

Research has demonstrated that collaboration between federal, state, and local agencies is beneficial in creating access to ECE for refugee children (Morland et al., 2016). As such, I recommend the following to help ensure access to Head Start programs for refugee children:

ORR should establish a firm collaboration with OHS. Partnerships between ORR and OHS, whose services typically do not interact (Morland et al., 2016), would help ensure that all refugee families with young children are aware of Head Start programs available to them and ensure equitable access, while also signaling the importance of ECE.
Refugee resettlement agencies should prioritize connecting families with young children to local Head Start programs. A collaboration between resettlement agencies and local Head Start programs would create an avenue to support refugee access to and enrollment in ECE. Refugee families with young children would greatly benefit from Head Start’s wraparound services after they stop receiving support from the resettlement office.

References

Arapa, B., Sánchez, E., Hurtado-Mazeyra, A., & Sánchez, A. (2021). The relationship between access to pre-school education and the development of social-emotional competencies: Longitudinal evidence from Peru. International Journal of Educational Development, 87, 102482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102482

Barnett, W. S. (1992). Benefits of Compensatory Preschool Education. The Journal of Human Resources, 27(2), 279–312. https://doi.org/10.2307/145736

Bouchane, Kollen, Molly Curtiss, and Bethany Ellis. 2016. Safe Spaces: The Urgent Need for Early Childhood Development in Emergencies and Disasters. London: Theirworld. https://theirworld.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Safespaces_report.pdf

Department of Health and Human Services. (2021). Head Start History. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ohs/about/history-head-start

Karoly, L. A., Kilburn, M. R., & Cannon, J. S. (2005). Early childhood interventions: Proven results, future promise. Rand.

Meloy, B., Gardner, M., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2019). Untangling the Evidence on Preschool Effectiveness: Insights for Policymakers. Learning Policy Institute. https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/untangling-evidence-preschool-effectiveness-report

Morland, L., Ives, N., McNeely, C., & Allen, C. (2016). Providing a Head Start: Improving Access to Early Childhood Education for Refugees. 37.

Moving Minds Alliance. (2020). Analysis-of-international-aid-levels-for-early-childhood-services-in-crisis-contexts.pdf. https://movingmindsalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/analysis-of-international-aid-levels-for-early-childhood-services-in-crisis-contexts.pdf

Park, M. (2018). Responding to the ECEC Needs of Children of Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Europe and North America. 70.

Ponguta, L. A., Aragón, C. A., Varela, L. R., Moore, K., Hein, S., & Cerezo, A. (2020). Sector‐wide analysis of early childhood development and education in emergencies in Colombia and considerations to strengthen systems globally. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2020(172), 103–123. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20367

Refugee Resettlement and Child Care Partnerships: Partnering to Increase Refugee Families’ Access to High-Quality Child Care. (2014). https://www.acf.hhs.gov/occ/policy-guidance/refugee-resettlement-and-child-care-partnerships-partnering-increase-refugee

Refugees, U. N. H. C. for. (n.d.). UNHCR Education Report 2021: “Staying the course” – The challenges facing refugee education. UNHCR. Retrieved March 27, 2022, from https://www.unhcr.org/publications/education/612f85d64/unhcr-education-report-2021-staying-course-challenges-facing-refugee-education.html

Statman-Weil, K. (2015). Creating Trauma- Sensitive Classrooms. 8.

Taylor, S., & Sidhu, R. K. (2012). Supporting refugee students in schools: What constitutes inclusive education? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 16(1), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110903560085

The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2005). Stress Disrupts the Architecture of the Developing Brain. 12.

UNICEF-Programme- Guidance-for-Early-Childhood-Development-2017.pdf. (2017). UNICEF.

United Nations Association of the National Capital Area. (2021). Climate Displacement.pdf. Google Docs. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Lpmw8zjzSqDVGWOtQFpmOBeXRolruiJT/view?usp=embed_facebook

US Department of State. (2022). Refugee Admissions. United States Department of State. https://www.state.gov/refugee-admissions/

What is Nurturing Care? (2020, November 19). https://nurturing-care.org/what-is-nurturing-care/

October 31, 2022October 31, 2022

Giving Voice to the Voiceless: The Value of Creative Expression and Arts-Based Education Initiatives for Refugees

By: Ciara Hoyne

Peer-reviewed by REAL members

In 2021, 13,700 refugees were resettled in the U.S., which is approximately 43 percent more than in the year 2020 (UNHCR, 2022). Push factors such as the outbreak of war in Ukraine in February 2022, the Taliban’s return to power in Afghanistan in the summer of 2021, multiple ongoing humanitarian and economic crises, and worldwide climate catastrophes have intensified the flows of refugees into the U.S. A particular challenge to grappling with the rise in numbers of refugees is finding ways to effectively include and integrate migrants into their host societies (Moreira & Jakobi, 2021). Upon resettling, refugees are often confronted with the reality of discrimination and lack of inclusion based upon their linguistic, cultural, or ethnic backgrounds (Brown, 2015). Many refugees also struggle with the experience of cultural bereavement or the “experience of the uprooted person, or group, resulting from loss of social structures, cultural values and self-identity” (Beauregard, 2020) as they adjust to life in a new country. The challenges refugees face have adverse psycho-sociological effects and can inhibit their sense of inclusion and agency within the host community (Beauregard, 2020). As a result, refugees are often left struggling to grasp a cohesive sense of identity, while simultaneously seeking to find a voice and sense of purpose.

While refugees may face undue challenges to feeling included within host societies, opportunities for creative expression or arts based education programs can act as a pathway to improving feelings of inclusion, confidence, agency, and empowerment (Nashwan, Steckler, Abdulhaq, 2019). Creativity allows the individual to see from a different perspective by developing one’s own vision of the world, and often entails synthesizing and channeling past and present experiences into different forms of art (Brown & Bousalis, 2017). This synthesizing process is especially valuable as a coping mechanism for refugee populations who have experienced cultural bereavement and trauma associated with being displaced from one’s home. Refugees can also utilize creative expression as a way to connect to their own heritage and maintain a sense of identity (Beauregard, 2020). For example, creative practices, such as theater and hip-hop dance have significant value for Middle Eastern youth living in the U.S., as it allows youth to connect to the tradition of storytelling present in many Arab cultures (Nashwan, et. al., 2019). Participation of refugee youth in theater and hip-hop reflects the notion that refugees can engage in creative practices that allow them to participate in American culture while still maintaining ties to their native culture. Similar to this idea, artistic practices also incorporate the “expression of ambivalence and change” (Beauregard, 2020), which can aid in keeping refugee students grounded as they navigate considerable amounts of change upon resettling to live in the U.S.

Perhaps even more important to consider is the unique quality of creative practices to exist across cultural and national lines, embodying an ability to connect to a sense of appreciation inherent in all people (Nashwan, et. al., 2019). That is to say, no matter what cultural background an individual may come from, arts-based education is capable of reinforcing and strengthening intercultural relationships. This can invoke change on both the individual and broader community level. According to one study by Moreira & Jakobi (2021), refugees, as well as locals participating in creative intervention projects, were able to cultivate a process of mutual exchange and dialogue. Similar findings were the result of a study on arts cooperation projects in refugee communities in Polykastro, Greece. Overall it suggested that public arts projects can promote the acceptance and inclusion of refugee communities into the broader fabric of the local community (Escaño, et. al., 2021). Both studies reveal that arts-based education projects can improve the relationship between recently resettled refugees and locals within their community. This relationship acts to aid refugees in their feelings of inclusion within society, mitigate the harmful psycho-social effects associated with resettlement, and reduces experiences of discrimination.

In addition to social inclusion, opportunities for creative expression also positively contribute to refugees’ communication abilities and confidence levels. One program based on creative writing workshops for refugees found that refugees were able to benefit from self-expression, and improve their English language skills (Stickley et. al, 2018). Improvement of language skills, coupled with the welcoming environment of the workshop, ultimately provided refugees with a newfound sense of confidence in their abilities to express themselves and to cultivate a voice that can be heard and appreciated within their new community. Despite disadvantages in English language speaking abilities, creative writing workshops for refugees and people seeking asylum have proven to be successful ways for refugees to be socially included.

Confidence-building in creative expression is also relevant to the use of spoken word poetry in multilingual classrooms. One program highlighted spoken word poetry workshops within classroom spaces that allowed refugee students to create their own narratives and engage with their own voice in a way that was not impeded by language barriers or limited proficiency in English (Burton & Van Viegen, 2021). The workshop also allowed both native and non-native speakers of English to collaborate by “negotiating meaning and translating words for one another” (Burton & Van Viegen, 2021). This proved to be successful in helping non-refugee students understand refugee students’ difficult experiences of linguistic standards and discrimination present within the classroom (Burton & Van Viegen, 2021). The enhanced communal understanding of refugee students’ linguistic challenges is valuable because it can lead to a greater sense of compassion and empathy within learning environments and local communities.

Given the benefits of creativity and arts-based education programs for refugee populations, U.S. schools and community service providers should work to incorporate more of these arts-based education initiatives into their curriculums and program schedules. In order to carry out this call to action, I recommend that schools first work to reduce the stigma associated with the arts as less valuable in comparison to other academic endeavors such as math and science. Second, in addition to illuminating the value of the arts, it is essential that schools and community service providers enhance the allocation of arts-based funding in order to gather sufficient resources and support for facilitating programs that can provide refugees with the utmost benefits. Third, I recommend that these arts-based initiatives combine the participation of refugees with involvement of the local community to bring attention to the positive value that refugees can add to society. The transformative power of creative expression and arts-based education can serve as an outlet for refugees to be seen and appreciated by a greater audience. Above all, these initiatives can serve as an opportunity for refugees to feel empowered, hopeful, and welcome in the U.S.

References

Beauregard, C. (2020). Being in between: Exploring Cultural Bereavement and Identity Expression through Drawing. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health Vol. 15 (3), 292-310. https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2019.1702131

Brown, C. S. (2015). The Educational, Psychological, and Social Impact of Discrimination on
the Immigrant Child. Migration Policy Institute. 1-17.

Brown, S. L., & Bousalis, R. (2017). Empowering Young Minds Through Communication, Creative Expression, and Human Rights in Refugee Art. Art Education, Vol. 70 (4), 48-50. https://doi.org/10.1080/00043125.2017.1317562

Burton, J. & VanViegan, S. (2021). Spoken Word Poetry with Multilingual Youth from Refugee Backgrounds. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, Vol. 65 (1), 75-84. doi: 10.1002/jaal.1178

Escaño, C., Mesías-Lema, J.M., & Mañero, J. (2021). Empowerment of the refugee migrant community through a cooperation project on art education in Greece. Development in Practice, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2021.1944986

Moreira, A. I. A., & Jakobi, A. L. P. (2021). Re-Voicing the Unheard: Meta-Study on Arts-Based Interventions for Social Inclusion of Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Journal of Education, Culture, and Society, Vol. (2), 93-112. doi: 10.15503.jecs2021.2.93.112

Nashwan, A. J., Steckler, T., & Abdulhaq, B. K. (2019). Healing Through Expression: How the Arts Transform the Experience of Syrian Refugees in Jordan. Human and Social Sciences, Vol.46 (3), 377-388.

Stickley, T., Hui, A., Stubley, M., Baker, F., & Watson, M. C. (2019). “Write here, sanctuary” creative writing for refugees and people seeking asylum. Arts & Health, Vol.11(3), 246-263. https://doi.org/10.1080/17533015.2018.1494450

UNHCR. (2022, July 21). The U.S. Refugee Resettlement Program Explained. UNRefugees.org.https://www.unrefugees.org/news/the-u-s-refugee-resettlement-program-explained/

UNHCR. (2021). Figures at a Glance. UNHCR.org. https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/figures-at-a-glance.html

April 7, 2022November 14, 2022

A Call for Inclusion of Refugee Mothers at All Levels of Education

By: Haley Skeens

Peer-reviewed by REAL members

At the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, education was established as a basic human right for all refugees. Yet, over 30 years later, girls and women with refugee backgrounds still suffer from unequal access to education (UNHCR, 2022). This includes refugee mothers, who are often neglected in education research and policy.

Most research on education for refugee mothers revolves around pregnancy, childbirth, and childcare education (Erdemir, 2022; Henry, 2020; Ponguta et al. 2019). Little has been published about refugee mothers’ educational journeys. Governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) need to allocate greater funds towards more inclusive research and educational options for vulnerable groups, such as refugee mothers, to ensure equal access to education at all levels.

Barriers

Common barriers refugee mothers face include gender-specific, cultural expectations which limit their educational access. An Australian study showed that some husbands prohibited refugee mothers from attending mixed-gender language learning classes due to cultural gender norms (Riggs et al., 2012). Men are viewed as the financial head of the family, so men and boys’ education is prioritized over that of women and girls in some cultures (Riggs et al., 2012).

In a separate study, researchers Harris et al. (2013) explored education for refugee mothers as a threat to male authority, especially the authority of husbands. Refugee mothers accessing education were seen as “creating ‘gender trouble’” because they were traversing typical gender roles (Harris et al., 2013, p. 190). Often, traditional gender roles expect men and boys to provide financial support while refugee mothers care for children and the home. Limited childcare including options perceived as culturally inappropriate by refugee mothers present an obstacle for those who would like to access education (Riggs et al., 2012, p. 399).

Refugee mothers also face limited funds for education and must consider childcare costs and additional educational expenses. Riggs et al.’s (2012) study discussed the financial stressors placed on refugee mothers in relation to their own and their children’s education. In their study, mothers enrolled in full-time education programs wished to attend part-time school to lessen the burden of childcare expenses but were concerned that such change would affect their welfare payments. Refugee mothers were also upset that their children’s school had hidden fees for extra activities and field trips (Riggs et al., 2012). However, a 2017 study found that lack of childcare was only an obstacle for married mothers. Husbands enforced gendered caretaking roles for refugee mothers. Therefore, single moms with refugee backgrounds had more autonomy over their educational decisions. Single mothers also shared that they felt obligated to continue their education to earn a higher-paying job and provide as the sole breadwinner (Perry & Mallozzi, 2017). This raises the question of autonomy versus financial necessity for single moms choosing to pursue education.

Refugee mothers also face the challenge of knowing the language of instruction in host countries. Many are eligible to take language classes but have difficulty attending due to family responsibilities and lack of childcare. Without access to language education, refugee mothers have lower chances of passing the language tests often required for admission to tertiary education programs (UNHCR, 2019). This is reflected in Ergin and de Wit’s (2020) study which found that of Syrian refugee background students who only had one parent attain a higher education degree, 30.87% were fathers while only 7.8% were mothers.

Riggs et al. (2012) explain that “language skills are vital for participating in education and employment, and accessing services, which in turn, affect opportunities to develop social connections” (p. 398). Unfortunately, refugee mothers are at a higher risk of exclusion from language education, which increases risk of social isolation, postpartum depression, and depression (Riggs et al., 2012). This emphasizes the need for refugee mothers’ access to language education because without sufficient language training, their sense of belonging, mental health, and well-being are negatively impacted.

However, refugee mothers are not a monolith, and their experiences vary, including other challenges not mentioned above. By examining common barriers, we can begin to discuss possible solutions and urge governments and NGOs to increase accessibility of education services for student mothers with refugee backgrounds.

Recommendations

Barriers to accessing education can be detrimental to refugee mothers, affecting families, communities, and nations. If refugee mothers gain access to more educational opportunities, research shows that “health, education, social, economic and leadership prospects increase while vulnerability…decreases” (UNESCO, 2019). Therefore, governments, universities, and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) need to offer more inclusive education programs to best support refugee mothers and communities.

Several programs currently exist which serve as examples on how to help refugee mothers access education. For Syrian refugee mothers in Turkey, Arar et al. (2018) describe a program that includes a nursery for children alongside language classes and vocational courses which allow women to learn profitable skills. Ergin and de Wit (2020) also suggest programs to increase Syrian female refugees’ access to education including female-only scholarships, childcare at universities, and spreading awareness about the importance of girls education. These solutions provide support systems for refugee mothers and daughters to access higher education, and it is imperative that resettlement agencies work together with local organizations and universities to offer these educational opportunities to increase gender equality in schooling.

Arizona State University’s Digital English Language Courses at the Za’atari Camp Center in Jordan offer access to refugee mothers through flexible education models. This program emphasizes “gender parity in program recruitment” and facilitates access to education by offering on-site daycare (Connected Learning in Crisis Consortium, 2019, p. 30). Refugee mothers can “participate…and improve their English skills…with their children supervised by NRC staff nearby.” (Connected Learning in Crisis Consortium, 2019, p. 30). These types of programs and wraparound services are crucial to supporting refugee mothers’ success in education.

Amidst what “looks set to become Europe’s largest refugee crisis this century,” it is crucial to act now (Mantoo, 2022). The UNHCR has recently mobilized field staff to Ukraine and surrounding countries to assure that refugees’ basic humanitarian needs are met, including education. Education systems must be ready to help not only children integrate into school systems but other student populations such as refugee mothers. Investing time and effort in ensuring refugee mothers’ access to education will benefit individuals, refugee communities, and contribute to national and global well-being.

All opinions are exclusively those of the author and not of George Washington University, the Graduate School of Education and Human Development, the Refugee Educational Advancement Laboratory or any of its members or other entities.

References

Arar, K., Deniz Orucu., & Akki, G. (2018). Culturally Relevant School Leadership for Syrian Refugee Students in Challenging Circumstances, Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 47(6), 960-979.

Connected Learning in Crisis Consortium. (2019). ASU’s Digital English Language Courses in Za’atari Camp, Jordan. https://connectedlearning4refugees.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/CLCC-2019-Yearbook_Final.pdf

Erdemir, E. (2022). Home-Based Early Education for Refugee and Local Children via Mothers: A model of contextually sensitive early intervention. Journal of Child and Family Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02197-7

Ergin, H. & de Wit, H. (2020). Integration policy for Syrian refugees’ access to Turkish Higher Education: Inclusive enough? In Curaj, A., Deca, L. & Pricopie, R. (Eds.), European Higher Education Area: Challenges for a new decade (pp. 121-131). Cham: Springer.

Harris, A., Spark, C., & Ngum Chi, M. C. (2013). The Barriers that Only You Can See: African Australian women thriving in tertiary education despite the odds. Géneros (Barcelona), 2(2), 182–202.

Henry, J., Beruf, C., & Fischer, T. (2020). Access to Health Care for Pregnant Arabic-Speaking Refugee Women and Mothers in Germany. Qualitative Health Research, 30(3), 437–447. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732319873620

Mantoo, S., (2022). UNHCR mobilizing to aid forcibly displaced in Ukraine and neighbouring countries.UNHCR.https://www.unhcr.org/news/briefing/2022/3/621deda74/unhcr-mobilizing-aid-forcibly-displaced-ukraine-neighbouring-countries.html

Perry, K.H., & Mallozzi, C. A. (2017). “We have education, I can say that”: Worldview and access to education for adult refugees. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 27(2), 491–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12152

Ponguta, L.A., Issa, G., Aoudeh, L., Maalouf, C., Nourallah, S., Khoshnood, K., Zonderman, A. L., Katsovich, L., Moore, C., Salah, R., Al‐Soleiti, M., Britto, P. R., & Leckman, J. F. (2019). Implementation Evaluation of the Mother‐Child Education Program Among Refugee and Other Vulnerable Communities in Lebanon. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2019(167), 91–116. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20314

UNESCO. (2019). From Access to Empowerment: UNESCO strategy for gender equality in and through education 2019-2025. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000369000

UNHCR. (2019). Doubling our Impact: Third country higher education pathways for refugees.https://www.unhcr.org/5e5e4c614.pdf

UNHCR. (2022). Women. https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/women.html